Omrubricering genom 23:4 st.2 BrB - Det utvidgade medgärningsmannaskapet - en gränslös rättsfigur?

Genom straffrättsreformen 1948 skulle domstolarna ges en större flexibilitet att bedöma vilken ansvarsform varje medverkande gjorts sig skyldig till. Systemet skulle på detta sätt bli mer effektivt. I förarbetena uttrycks att en gärningsman i regel har deltagit i utförandet av den brottsliga gärningen men att det i vissa fall kan te sig ”naturligt” att anse även annan deltagande som gärningsman. Någon definition om vad det innebär att vara gärningsman ansåg SRK vara överflödig. Istället överlämnades till rättstillämpningen att avgöra detta. Den centrala bestämmelsen för medverkan till brott återfinns idag i 23:4 BrB. Bestämmelsen utvidgar straffansvaret genom att även den som främjat en gärning med råd eller dåd kan ställas till svars. De enskilda straffbuden är i regel en beskrivning av en gärning som utförs av en person. I realiteten begås brott ofta av flera gärningsmän. När någon eller några av dessa inte självständigt uppfyller brottsrekvisiten krävs en utvidgad tolkning av det aktuella straffbudet för att kunna döma samtliga som medgärningsmän. Hur pass delaktig en person ska ha varit samt vilka kriterier denne ska ha uppfyllt för att betraktas som medgärningsman är svårt att få ett entydigt svar på. Omrubriceringsmöjligheten i 23:4 st. 2 BrB torde dock ha påverkat kravet på delaktighet i sänkande riktning. I rättspraxis har omrubriceringsmöjligheten tillämpats på olika sätt och i varierande grad. I sin mest utvidgade form har den tillämpats på delaktiga med perifera roller som i objektiv mening inte uppfyller rekvisiten för det aktuella brottet. Kravet på aktivitet har i dessa fall satts mycket lågt och kvalitetsskillnaden på de inblandades gärningar har varit betydande. I uppsatsen används benämningen ”utvidgad medgärningsman” för att beteckna denna rättsliga företeelse. Inom medverkansläran finns ett antal centrala begrepp som i hög grad påverkar nämnda bedömning. Uppsatsen visar att dessa begrepp i vissa fall ligger långt ifrån motsvarande betydelse i allmänt språkbruk. En sådan företeelse riskerar att bli oförutsebart och strida mot det allmänna rättsmedvetandet. I uppsatsen konstateras att ett främjande i juridisk teknisk mening i vissa fall betraktats som betydligt vidare än i vardagliga sammanhang. Eftersom ett minimikrav för att kunna betraktas som medgärningsman är att man åtminstone främjat gärningen kan en sådan vidare definition få betydelse för medgärningsmannaskapets avgränsning. Det är också oklart vad som menas med att utföra en gärning och hur den ska skiljas från att främja densamma. Denna gränsdragning får betydelse för när det är ”naturligt” att anse en främjare vara gärningsman. I uppsatsen konstateras att det inte är möjligt att på en abstrakt nivå ställa upp en teori som löser denna gränsdragningsproblematik i det enskilda fallet. För att avgöra gränsdragningen på ett mer generellt plan kan man dock ha vägledning av ett antal kriterier som utkristalliserats i rättspraxis. Det kan ske genom att på en objektiv nivå undersöka kvalitetsskillnaden i respektive medverkandes handlande, tidsliga och rumsliga faktorer, föregående arbetsfördelning och brottsplaner, aktivitetsnivå, inbördes relationer etc.Through the criminal justice reform in 1948, the courts would be given greater flexibility to assess the form of responsibility each participant was guilty of, thus making the system more efficient. The preamble states that a perpetrator has usually participated in the execution of the criminal act, but in some cases it may be "natural" to consider another participant as a perpetrator. SRK considered any definition of being a perpertrator as redundant, and it was instead submitted to the adjudication process for determination. The key rule for involvement in crimes is today found in 23:4 BrB. The provision extends criminal liability by allowing even the one who promoted a criminal act with advice or deed to be brought to justice. The individual penal provision is usually a description of an act performed by a single person. In fact, crimes are often committed by several offenders. When one or more of them do not fully comply with the criminal offense, an extended interpretation of the current penalty provision is required in order to be able to judge all as what in Swedish criminal law is called ”medgärningsmannaskap”, which can be translated as a shared perpertratorship. How involved a person should have been as well as what criteria he should have fulfilled to be considered as ”medgärningsman” is difficult to get a clear answer of. The possibility of classification in 23:4 st. 2 BrB has probably affected the requirement for criminal participation in a descending direction. In case-law, this possibility has been applied in different ways and to varying degrees. In its most expanded form, it has been applied to peripheral roles which, in objective sense, do not fulfill the necessary condition in question. In these cases, the requirement for activity has been set very low and the difference in quality between the actions involved has been significant. In this paper the Swedish term "utvidgat medgärningsmannaskap" is used to denote this legal phenomenon. Within ”medverkansläran” there are a number of central legal concepts that greatly affect that assessment. The essay shows that in some cases these legal concepts are far from the corresponding meaning in general language use. Such a phenomenon risks becoming unpredictable and contrary to the general sense of law. In the paper it is stated that a promotion (främjande) in legal technical terms have in some cases been regarded as considerably wider than in everyday situations. Since a minimum requirement for being considered as a ”medgärningsman” is that at least promoting a deed, such a wider definition may be of importance for the delimitation of ”medgärningsmannaskapet”. It is also unclear what is meant by performing an act and how it should be distinguished from promoting it. This boundary becomes important when it is "natural" to consider a promoter to be a perpetrator.In the paper it is stated that it is not possible at an abstract level to draw up a theory that solves this boundary problem in specific cases. However, in order to determine the limitation on a more general level, guidance can be given to a number of criteria that crystallized from case law. This can regard investigating on an objective level the quality difference in the actions of each participants, time and spatial factors, previous division of labor and conspiring, activity level, mutual relations, etc

Shear induced diffusion of platelets revisited

The transport of platelets in blood is commonly assumed to obey an advection-diffusion equation with a diffusion constant given by the so-called Zydney-Colton theory. Here we reconsider this hypothesis based on experimental observations and numerical simulations including a fully resolved suspension of red blood cells and platelets subject to a shear. We observe that the transport of platelets perpendicular to the flow can be characterized by a non-trivial distribution of velocities with and exponential decreasing bulk, followed by a power law tail. We conclude that such distribution of velocities leads to diffusion of platelets about two orders of magnitude higher than predicted by Zydney-Colton theory. We tested this distribution with a minimal stochastic model of platelets deposition to cover space and time scales similar to our experimental results, and confirm that the exponential-powerlaw distribution of velocities results in a coefficient of diffusion significantly larger than predicted by the Zydney-Colton theory

Företagsbesiktning – En analys av företagsbesiktningens rättsverkningar

Begreppet due diligence är i svenskt näringsliv synonymt med företagsbesiktning. Som företeelse är det en procedur för att genomlysa ett målbolags ekonomiska ställning och andra förhållanden. Företagsbesiktningen är således ett viktigt instrument för att skaffa sig kunskap om inneboende risker i målbolaget samt för att identifiera risker med förvärvet i stort. Besiktningen ger köparen ett bra beslutsunderlag och utgör en betydelsefull grund för riskfördelningen mellan parterna. Genom en väl utförd företagsbesiktning kan köpeskillingen justeras och villkor tas in i köpekontraktet som ger en korrekt bild av möjliga risker och felkällor. Företagsbesiktningen kompletteras vanligtvis av säljarens lämnade garantier. Garantierna kan vara specifika för vissa egenskaper eller allmänna. Genom den avtalade garantin preciseras köpobjektet och säljarens risksfär utökas i förhållande till köplagens riskfördelning. I uppsatsens andra kapitel konstateras att köplagen (1990:931) är formellt tillämplig vid företagsförvärv eftersom aktier utgör lös egendom. Meningarna har tidigare gått isär om vilken lagstiftning som ska tillämpas men såväl rättspraxis som doktrin torde idag vara samstämmig om att köplagen ska tillämpas vid företagsförvärv. I praktiken väljer parterna emellertid ofta, genom avtal, en annan riskfördelning än den som köplagen stadgar. Detta hänger framför allt ihop med att köplagens felregler inte anses vara tillräckligt förutsebara i dessa sammanhang. När köpekontrakt utformas fungerar köplagen dock ofta som referens för den rättsliga riskfördelningen. I de fall parternas köpekontrakt är oklart eller ofullständigt utgör köplagen utfyllande rätt vid tolkning av avtalet. Eftersom det är mycket svårt att genom avtal på ett uttömmande sätt reglera samtliga risker, är det nödvändigt att parterna är väl medvetna om köplagens riskfördelning. Enligt 17 § köplagen ansvarar en säljare för fel i köpobjektet om det avviker från vad som avtalats mellan parterna samt om det inte stämmer med köparens befogade förväntningar. För sådant som inte är avtalat och för obefogade förväntningar kan köparen således inte göra gällande fel enligt köplagen. Ett centralt problem vid företagsförvärv är emellertid att det är svårt att fastslå vilka befogade förväntningar en köpare kan ha. Aktierna i ett aktiebolag representerar nämligen en förmögenhetsmassa som kan bestå av en variation av olika materiella och immateriella tillgångar. Eftersom köpobjektet är unikt medför det att det sällan går att finna en jämförelsenorm utanför köpekontraktet eller för vad som annars har utfästs. Trots detta utesluter inte rättspraxis och den juridiska litteraturen att det kan finnas grundläggande egenskaper för aktiebolag som en köpare alltid kan ha befogade förväntningar på. Oavsett vilken åsikt man är av i detta avseende så är de befogade förväntningarna vid företagsförvärv väldigt få och inte utan reservationer. Riskfördelningen i köplagen är fullständig på så sätt att det alltid är någon av parterna som bär risken. Detta kommer bland annat till uttryck genom köparens så kallade undersökningsplikt och säljarens så kallade upplysningsplikt. Ändamålet med såväl undersökningsplikten som upplysningsplikten är, bland annat, att färre köp ska ingås med felaktiga förväntningar. På så sätt kan onödiga tvister undvikas. Som utgångspunkt finns ingen undersökningsplikt vid köp av lös egendom. Undersökningsplikten kan dock aktualiseras genom köparens initiativ, genom uttrycklig eller underförstådd uppmaning från säljaren, eller genom att köpekontraktet föreskriver att köparen getts möjlighet att undersöka målbolaget. Det har även argumenterats för att det vid företagsförvärv finns en undersökningsplikt genom sedvänja. I likhet med vad som gäller vid fastighetsköp skulle en företagsköpare i så fall ha en skyldighet att undersöka målbolaget utan uppmaning från säljaren. Företagsbesiktningen är idag visserligen mer eller mindre standard men något klart stöd för en sådan sedvänja torde dock inte finnas. Köparens vetskap enligt 20 § köplagen har direkt inverkan på parternas risksfärer. En köpare kan inte göra gällande fel för sådant som denna ”måste antas ha känt till” vid köpet eller som denna ”borde ha märkt” vid en undersökning. I köprättslig mening leder således köparens vetskap till en omfördelning av risken från säljare till köpare. Vilka krav som ställs på undersökningens omfattning och kvalitet vid företagsförvärv styrs av en rad olika faktorer. Bedömningen baseras bland annat på hur besiktningen har aktualiserats, hur tillgänglig informationen varit, köparens kunskap och erfarenhet samt säljarens handlande. Om en säljare till exempel lämnat motstridiga uppgifter eller underlåtit att upplysa om, för köparen väsentliga förhållanden, kan detta påverka bedömningen. Har säljaren handlat illojalt och i ond tro kan köparen få åberopa fel trots att det rör ett förhållande som denna borde ha märkt vid en undersökning. När en säljare lämnat en garanti gällande ett visst förhållande kan den begränsa besiktningens omfattning medan en friskrivning i regel utökar omfattningen. Uppsatsen syftar till att belysa företagsbesiktningen som företeelse samt att undersöka hur företagsbesiktningen påverkar riskfördelningen enligt den dispositiva rätten. I fokus står den köprättsliga så kallade undersökningsplikten. Sekundärt granskas också hur säljarens garantier och friskrivningar inverkar på riskfördelningen.The concept of due diligence in the Swedish business sector is synonymous with "company inspection." It is legitimately a procedure for examining the financial position and other circumstances of a company. The company inspection is a significant instrument for acquiring knowledge of inherent risks in the offeree company, and for identifying risks with the acquisition in general. The control gives the buyer a good insight for decision-making and constitutes an essential basis for the risk distribution between the parties. Through a well-executed company inspection, it is possible to adjust the purchase price and the conditions included in the contract. It will provide a correct picture of potential risks and sources of error. The company inspection usually supplements with guarantees provided by the seller. The guarantees may be specific to some properties or in general. The contractual guarantees will specify the offeree company, and the seller's risk factor increase concerning the risk distribution of the Sale of Goods Act. In the second chapter of the thesis, it states that the Swedish Sale of Goods Act (1990: 931) is formally applicable to company acquisitions since shares constitute personal property. The opinions have previously been divided on which legislation is to be applied. Both case law and doctrine should today be consistent with the fact that the Sale of Goods Act should be implemented in a company acquisition. In practice, however, the parties often choose, by agreement, a different risk distribution than the one stipulated by the Sale of Goods Act. It is mainly since the rules of error in the Sale of Goods Act are not considered to be sufficiently predictable in these contexts. However, when a contract is drafted, the Sale of Goods Act often serves as a reference for the legal risk distribution. In cases where the parties’ contract is unclear or incomplete, the Sale of Goods Act constitutes to the interpretation of the agreement. Since it is challenging to settle on all risks through an agreement in a comprehensive manner, it is necessary for the parties to be well aware of the risk distribution in the Sale of Goods Act. According to article 17 of the Sale of Goods Act, a seller is responsible for errors in the offeree company if it deviates from what has been agreed upon between the parties, and if it does not correspond to the purchaser's legitimate expectations. For things that are not agreed upon and for unforeseen expectations, the buyer cannot make valid inaccuracy according to the Sale of Goods Act. A fundamental problem with company acquisitions is that it is difficult to determine which legitimate expectations a buyer can have. The shares in a limited company represent a wealth of assets that may consist of a variety of different tangible and intangible assets. Considering that the purchase item is unique, it also means that there is seldom possible to find a standard of comparison outside the contract, or for what has otherwise been promised. Despite this, there may be fundamental characteristics of limited companies where a buyer can have legitimate expectations. Regardless of one's opinion in this respect, the legitimate expectations are in any case very few and not without reservations. The risk distribution in the Sale of Goods Act is complete in such a way that it is always one of the parties that will carry the risk. It is expressed, among other things, through the buyer's so-called "duty to investigate", and the seller's so-called "duty to provide information." The purpose of the duty to investigate and the obligation to provide information is, among other things, to make fewer purchases with incorrect expectations. It is a way to avoid unnecessary disputes. As a starting point, there is no obligation in Swedish law to investigate when purchasing personal property. However, the duty to research can be brought to light through the buyer's initiative, by express or implied request from the seller or by the contract stipulating that the buyer has the opportunity to investigate the offeree company. It also argues that, in the case of a company acquisition, it is custom and duty to examine the offeree company thoroughly. In this case, as with real estate purchases, a company buyer would have an obligation to investigate the company without the seller's request. Although the company inspection today is more or less standard, there is no explicit support for such a custom to exist. The buyer's knowledge according to Article 20 of the Sale of Goods Act has a direct impact on the parties' risk distribution. A buyer cannot make a valid error for such things as it must be assumed to have known at the time of the purchase, or which ut should have noticed during an investigation. Thus, in the sense of the Sales of Goods Act, the buyer's knowledge leads to a re-distribution of the risk from the seller to the buyer. Many different factors govern the requirements that are placed on the scope and quality of the inspection in company acquisitions. The assessment establishes on, among other things, how the inspection has been revised, how the information has been available, the buyer's knowledge and experience, and the seller's actions. If, for example, a seller has provided conflicting information or has failed to disclose to the buyer necessary conditions, this may affect the assessment. If the seller has acted unfairly and in bad faith, the buyer can claim wrong even though it relates to circumstances that it should have noticed during an investigation. When a seller has given a guarantee regarding a precise circumstance, it can limit the scope of the inspection while a disclaimer usually extends the reach. The thesis aims to shed light on the company inspection as a phenomenon and to investigate how the company inspection affects the distribution of risk according to the Sale of Goods Act. The focus is on the so-called "duty to investigate," and also investigating how the seller's guarantees and disclaimers affect the distribution of risk

Modelling Settling-Driven Gravitational Instabilities at the Base of Volcanic Clouds Using the Lattice Boltzmann Method

Field observations and laboratory experiments have shown that ash sedimentation can be significantly affected by collective settling mechanisms that promote premature ash deposition, with important implications for dispersal and associated impacts. Among these mechanisms, settling-driven gravitational instabilities result from the formation of a gravitationally-unstable particle boundary layer (PBL) that grows between volcanic ash clouds and the underlying atmosphere. The PBL destabilises once it reaches a critical thickness characterised by a dimensionless Grashof number, triggering the formation of rapid, downward-moving ash fingers that remain poorly characterised. We simulate this process by coupling a Lattice Boltzmann model, which solves the Navier-Stokes equations for the fluid phase, with a Weighted Essentially Non Oscillatory (WENO) finite difference scheme which solves the advection-diffusion-settling equation describing particle transport. Since the physical problem is advection dominated, the use of the WENO scheme reduces numerical diffusivity and ensures accurate tracking of the temporal evolution of the interface between the layers. We have validated the new model by showing that the simulated early-time growth rate of the instability is in very good agreement with that predicted by linear stability analysis, whilst the modelled late-stage behaviour also successfully reproduces quantitative results from published laboratory experiments. The results show that the model is capable of reproducing both the growth of the unstable PBL and the non-linear dependence of the fingers’ vertical velocity on both the initial particle concentration and the particle diameter. Our validated model is used to expand the parameter space explored experimentally and provides key insights into field studies. Our simulations reveal that the critical Grashof number for the instability is about ten times larger than expected by analogy with thermal convection. Moreover, as in the experiments, we found that instabilities do not develop above a given particle threshold. Finally, we quantify the evolution of the mass of particles deposited at the base of the numerical domain and demonstrate that the accumulation rate increases with time, while it is expected to be constant if particles settle individually. This suggests that real-time measurements of sedimentation rate from volcanic clouds may be able to distinguish finger sedimentation from individual particle settling.</p

Parameter estimation of platelets deposition: Approximate bayesian computation with high performance computing

Cardio/cerebrovascular diseases (CVD) have become one of the major health issue in our societies. Recent studies show the existing clinical tests to detect CVD are ineffectual as they do not consider different stages of platelet activation or the molecular dynamics involved in platelet interactions. Further they are also incapable to consider inter-individual variability. A physical description of platelets deposition was introduced recently in Chopard et al. (2017), by integrating fundamental understandings of how platelets interact in a numerical model, parameterized by five parameters. These parameters specify the deposition process and are relevant for a biomedical understanding of the phenomena. One of the main intuition is that these parameters are precisely the information needed for a pathological test identifying CVD captured and that they capture the inter-individual variability. Following this intuition, here we devise a Bayesian inferential scheme for estimation of these parameters, using experimental observations, at different time intervals, on the average size of the aggregation clusters, their number per mm2, the number of platelets, and the ones activated per \u3bcl still in suspension. As the likelihood function of the numerical model is intractable due to the complex stochastic nature of the model, we use a likelihood-free inference scheme approximate Bayesian computation (ABC) to calibrate the parameters in a data-driven manner. As ABC requires the generation of many pseudo-data by expensive simulation runs, we use a high performance computing (HPC) framework for ABC to make the inference possible for this model. We consider a collective dataset of seven volunteers and use this inference scheme to get an approximate posterior distribution and the Bayes estimate of these five parameters. The mean posterior prediction of platelet deposition pattern matches the experimental dataset closely with a tight posterior prediction error margin, justifying our main intuition and providing a methodology to infer these parameters given patient data. The present approach can be used to build a new generation of personalized platelet functionality tests for CVD detection, using numerical modeling of platelet deposition, Bayesian uncertainty quantification, and High performance computing

The potential role of T2*-weighted multi-echo data image combination as an imaging marker for intraplaque hemorrhage in carotid plaque imaging

Background: Carotid atherosclerotic plaques with intraplaque hemorrhage (IPH) are associated with elevated stroke risk. IPH is predominantly imaged based on paramagnetic properties of the upstream hemoglobin degradation product methemoglobin. This is an explorative observational study to test the feasibility of a spoiled gradient echo based T2* weighted MRI sequence (3D MEDIC) for carotid plaque imaging, and to compare signs suggestive of the downstream degradation product hemosiderin on 3D MEDIC with signs of methemoglobin on a T1wBB sequence. Methods: Patients with recent TIA or stroke were selected based on the presence on non-calcified plaque components on CTA to promote an enriched prevalence of IPH in the material. Patients (n = 42) underwent 3T MRI with 3D MEDIC and 2D turbo spin echo T1w black blood (T1wBB). Images were independently evaluated by two neuroradiologists and Cohens Kappa was used for inter-reader agreement for each sequence. Results: The technical feasibility for 3D MEDIC, was 34/42 patients (81%). Non-calcified plaque components with susceptibility effect without simultaneous T1-shortening—a combination suggestive of hemosiderin, was seen in 13/34 of the plaques. An equally large group display elevated T1w signal in combination with signal loss on 3D MEDIC, a combination suggestive of both hemosiderin and methemoglobin. Cohen’s kappa for inter-reader agreement was 0.64 (CI 0.345–0.925) for 3D MEDIC and 0.94 (CI 0.81–1.00) for T1wBB. Conclusions: 3D MEDIC shows signal loss, without elevated T1w signal on T1wBB, in non-calcified tissue in many plaques in this group of patients. If further studies, including histological verification, confirm that the 3D MEDIC susceptibility effect is indeed caused by hemosiderin, 3D MEDIC could aid in the detection of IPH, beyond elevation of T1w signal

A physical description of the adhesion and aggregation of platelets

The early stages of clot formation in blood vessels involve platelet adhesion–aggregation. Although these mechanisms have been extensively studied, gaps in their understanding still persist. We have performed detailed in vitro experiments, using the well-known Impact-R device, and developed a numerical model to better describe and understand this phenomenon. Unlike previous studies, we took into account the differential role of pre-activated and non-activated platelets, as well as the three-dimensional nature of the aggregation process. Our investigation reveals that blood albumin is a major parameter limiting platelet aggregate formation in our experiment. Simulations are in very good agreement with observations and provide quantitative estimates of the adhesion and aggregation rates that are hard to measure experimentally. They also provide a value of the effective diffusion of platelets in blood subject to the shear rate produced by the Impact-R.SCOPUS: ar.jinfo:eu-repo/semantics/publishe

A physical description of paltelet deposition: supplementary data from A physical description of the adhesion and aggregation of platelets

Additional experimental results and dat