An analysis of equine round pen training videos posted online: Differences between amateur and professional trainers

Natural Horsemanship is popular among many amateur and professional trainers and as such, has been the subject of recent scientific enquiry. One method commonly adopted by Natural Horsemanship (NH) trainers is that of round pen training (RPT). RPT sessions are usually split into a series of bouts; each including two phases: chasing/flight and chasing offset/flight offset. However, NH training styles are heterogeneous. This study investigated online videos of RPT to explore the characteristics of RPT sessions and test for differences in techniques and outcomes between amateurs and professionals (the latter being defined as those with accompanying online materials that promote clinics, merchandise or a service to the public). From more than 300 candidate videos, we selected sample files for individual amateur (n = 24) and professional (n = 21) trainers. Inclusion criteria were: training at liberty in a Round Pen; more than one bout and good quality video. Sessions or portions of sessions were excluded if the trainer attached equipment, such as a lunge line, directly to the horse or the horse was saddled, mounted or ridden. The number of bouts and duration of each chasing and non-chasing phase were recorded, and the duration of each RPT session was calculated. General weighted regression analysis revealed that, when compared with amateurs, professionals showed fewer arm movements per bout (p<0.05). Poisson regression analysis showed that professionals spent more time looking up at their horses, when transitioning between gaits, than amateurs did (p<0.05). The probability of horses following the trainer was not significantly associated with amount of chasing, regardless of category. Given that, according to some practitioners, the following response is a goal of RPT, this result may prompt caution in those inclined to give chase. The horses handled by professionals showed fewer conflict behaviours (e.g. kicking, biting, stomping, head-tossing, defecating, bucking and attempting to escape), and fewer oral and head movements (e.g. head-lowering, licking and chewing) than those horses handled by amateurs Overall, these findings highlight the need for selectivity when using the internet as an educational source and the importance of trainer skill and excellent timing when using negative reinforcement in horse training

Life skills training in hatchery reared fish

"This thesis is presented for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy January 2014"Includes bibliographical references.1. Introduction; behavioural deficits in hatchery reared fish and remedial steps to improve survival -- 2. Predator conditioning in hatchery reared golden perch Macquaria ambigua: the roles of visual and olfactory cues in learned predator recognition -- 3. Behavioural interactions between conditioned, hatchery-reared golden perch Macquaria ambigua and predatory spangled perch Leiopotherapon unicolor in a semi-natural enclosure -- 4. Predator conditioning in hatchery reared Australian bass Macquaria novemaculeata: the roles of visual and olfactory cues in learned predator recognition -- 5. Behavioural interactions between conditioned, hatchery-reared Australian bass Macquaria novemacueata and predatory spangled perch Leiopotherapon unicolor in a semi-natural enclosure -- 6. Predator conditioning in hatchery reared trout cod Machullochella maquariensis: the roles of visual and olfactory cues in learned predator recognition -- 7. Behavioural interactions between conditioned, hatchery-reared trout cod Machullochella maquariensis and predatory spangled perch Leiopotherapon unicolor in a semi-natural enclosure -- 8. Conclusions.Releasing hatchery reared fish into wild habitats has become an increasingly employed strategy for bolstering conservation or commercially important fish stocks. This method, however, has often met with limited success and the hatchery fish suffer from a high rate of mortality upon release. Reasons for this failure are often attributed to the underdeveloped behavioural traits displayed by hatchery reared fish. The rearing of fish in an impoverished hatchery environment may not allow for the development of a full complement of behaviours required to survive the rigours of the natural environment. There is increasing interest in applying remedial steps before the release of hatchery fish to improve the survival rate of the fish post-release. This often involves exposure to novel, live food items and conditioning via predator exposure. To date little work of this nature has been done on Australian species. Despite this, large numbers of fish are released into fisheries in Australia each year.This research examined life skills training, specifically predator recognition, in two species of fish from the troubled Murray-Darling river system, golden Perch (Macquaria ambigua) and trout cod (Maccullochella macquariensis) and one species, Australian bass (Macquaria novemaculeata), from south-eastern Australian coastal river systems. The relative roles of visual and chemical cues in learned predator recognition were investigated, followed by a behavioural interaction experiment with a live predator at liberty in semi-natural conditions.A range of graded responses were observed, however, the intensity of response and preferences for different sensory modalities varied for each species and in different tests. In golden perch (Macquaria ambigua) fingerlings trained using a combination of olfactory cues and conspecific extract (CE) reacted the most intensely. Conditioning using only CE elicited a response that was more generalised than that of the fingerlings conditioned with predator scent and CE, but similar in intensity. In the behavioural predator interaction trial with a predator at liberty in semi-natural conditions, conditioning using a live predator (multiple cues) elicited the greatest response. Fewer approaches toward the predator and an increased use of refuge were observed in fingerlings conditioned with a live predator.When investigating the Australian bass (Macquaria novemaculeata) conditioning fingerlings using only scent cues resulted in an increased use of refuge and a tendency towards looser schooling. Fingerlings conditioned using visual cues or multiple cues recovered faster and exhibited a less intense anti-predator response. Schooling responses were more intense when fingerlings were allowed visual contact with a predator than with the scent of a predator across all treatments. In the behavioural interaction trial with a predator at liberty in semi-natural conditions, combined visual and olfactory cues presented the most intense response, followed by conditioning using only visual cues from the predator. Furthermore, a more distinct difference between treatments was seen in measures of activity rather than of refuge use. Results suggest a stronger partiality to visual cues in this species.Finally, the results of the trout cod (Maccullochella macquariensis) demonstrated the use of multiple cues during conditioning increased the range of responses seen in the fingerlings including predator inspection. Results from the behavioural interaction trial with a predator at liberty in semi-natural conditions also show a stronger response to conditioning using a combination of visual and olfactory cues, or olfactory cues alone. The results presented here suggest the use of chemical and visual cues to enhance predator recognition may be successful in modifying the behaviour of hatchery reared fish in all three study species, however, these appear to be both context specific and species specific. The use of tailored life skills training programs in these species could potentially improve post-release survival of hatchery reared juveniles.Mode of access: World wide web1 online resource (209 pages) illustration

The Effect of sex and early environment on the lateralization of the rainbowfish Melanotaenia duboulayi

The influence of environmental complexity on the development of brain lateralization during ontogeny was investigated using the rainbowfish, Melanotaenia duboulayi. Male and female fish reared in enriched and impoverished environments were swum in a flume where they schooled with their mirror image on the left- or right-hand side. Interestingly, rearing conditions influenced the development of laterality in each sex differently. Males were more strongly lateralized when reared in enriched conditions compared with those reared in impoverished conditions. In contrast, females tended to show the opposite pattern. This difference in response to enrichment was likely due to variation in life-history priorities between sexes that can provide alterative fitness benefits. Males and females respond to stimuli differently as male are motivated by agonistic interactions with one another and courting females, whereas females are motivated by foraging. These varying motivating factors likely interact with habitat complexity in different ways during development resulting in different developmental trajectories with respect to laterality. When we examined turning preferences of females in a radial maze, we found no differences between fish reared in different habitats with respect to the turn biases. However, we did find that the activity rates of enriched females tended to be higher across all time periods, whereas impoverished fish increased activity levels as they became familiar with the apparatus. In general, our results suggest that male fish laterality may be more responsive to changes in rearing conditions than females.16 page(s

Definitions of the commencement and termination of manoeuvres scored in videos of trials.

<p>Definitions of the commencement and termination of manoeuvres scored in videos of trials.</p

Mean (±SE) rate of arm elevations made by handlers per second when dealing with dogs of different sexes.

<p>Mean (±SE) rate of arm elevations made by handlers per second when dealing with dogs of different sexes.</p

Ethogram of dog and handler behaviours recorded, including definitions.

<p>Ethogram of dog and handler behaviours recorded, including definitions.</p

Mean (±SE) time spent not moving by dogs of either sex in not-open and open trials.

<p>Mean (±SE) time spent not moving by dogs of either sex in not-open and open trials.</p

Learned Recognition and Avoidance of Invasive Mosquitofish by the Shrimp, Paratya australiensis

Little is known about the learning ability of crustaceans, especially with respect to their anti-predator responses to invasive species. In many vertebrates, anti-predator behaviour is influenced by experience during ontogeny. Here, predator-naïve glass shrimp (Paratya australiensisis) were exposed to a predatory, invasive fish species, Gambusia holbrooki, to determine whether shrimp could learn to: (1) avoid the scent of Gambusia via classical conditioning; and (2) restrict their activity patterns to the night to reduce predatory encounters. Conditioned shrimp were placed in containers in aquaria containing Gambusia for 3 days during which time they could be harassed but not consumed by Gambusia. When tested in a Y-maze, conditioned shrimp showed a long delay before making a choice between Gambusia scented water and aged tap water but chose an arm at random. Control shrimp showed a brief delay in emergence and also chose at random. In a second experiment, we housed shrimp with a single Gambusia and observed their activity patterns. In the presence of Gambusia, shrimp switched from diurnal to nocturnal foraging. These results show that naïve shrimp learn to recognise novel predatory species via chemical cues and adjust their activity patterns to coincide with periods when Gambusia are inactive

Learned recognition and avoidance of invasive mosquitofish by the shrimp, Paratya australiensis

Little is known about the learning ability of crustaceans, especially with respect to their anti-predator responses to invasive species. In many vertebrates, anti-predator behaviour is influenced by experience during ontogeny. Here, predator-nave glass shrimp (Paratya australiensisis) were exposed to a predatory, invasive fish species, Gambusia holbrooki, to determine whether shrimp could learn to: (1) avoid the scent of Gambusia via classical conditioning; and (2) restrict their activity patterns to the night to reduce predatory encounters. Conditioned shrimp were placed in containers in aquaria containing Gambusia for 3 days during which time they could be harassed but not consumed by Gambusia. When tested in a Y-maze, conditioned shrimp showed a long delay before making a choice between Gambusia scented water and aged tap water but chose an arm at random. Control shrimp showed a brief delay in emergence and also chose at random. In a second experiment, we housed shrimp with a single Gambusia and observed their activity patterns. In the presence of Gambusia, shrimp switched from diurnal to nocturnal foraging. These results show that nave shrimp learn to recognise novel predatory species via chemical cues and adjust their activity patterns to coincide with periods when Gambusia are inactive.7 page(s

Descriptive statistics (mean and standard deviation for both professional and amateur trainers) of typical RPT sessions from a study of online videos (n = 45).

<p>Descriptive statistics (mean and standard deviation for both professional and amateur trainers) of typical RPT sessions from a study of online videos (n = 45).</p