Application of Materials Characterization, Efficacy Testing, and Modelling Methods on Copper Cold Spray Coatings for Optimized Antimicrobial Properties

The Copper Development Association (CDA) has identified over 450 copper alloys registered with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) as antimicrobial. With growing antibiotic resistance, there is a need for copper coatings with increased antimicrobial capability. Cold spray is a high velocity, high deposition rate process that forms dense coatings with little to no oxides or inclusions. It is possible that this process contributes to the increased antimicrobial capability of copper cold spray coatings as compared to other additive processes.\n\tThe focus of this effort is to understand the effects of powder production and cold spray process parameters on copper cold spray coatings in order to optimize antimicrobial properties. Specifically, this work looks at the differences in conventional and nanomaterial copper cold spray coatings. Materials characterization and test methods show differences in adhesion, microstructure, corrosion, mechanical properties, and surface topography. Materials data is compared against Abaqus FEA software model outputs, and antimicrobial efficacy test data, based on the EPA approved procedure, is used to support materials observations and modelling outputs. \

Understanding the Antipathogenic Performance of Nanostructured and Conventional Copper Cold Spray Material Consolidations and Coated Surfaces

The role of high strain rate and severe plastic deformation, microstructure, electrochemical behavior, surface chemistry and surface roughness were characterized for two copper cold spray material consolidations, which were produced from conventionally gas-atomized copper powder as well as spray-dried copper feedstock, during the course of this work. The motivation underpinning this work centers upon the development of a more robust understanding of the microstructural features and properties of the conventional copper and nanostructured copper coatings as they relate to antipathogenic contact killing and inactivation applications. Prior work has demonstrated greater antipathogenic efficacy with respect to the nanostructured coating versus the conventional coating. Thus, microstructural analysis was performed in order to establish differences between the two coatings that their respective pathogen kill rates could be attributed to. Results from advanced laser-induced projectile impact testing, X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, electron backscatter diffraction, scanning transmission microscopy, nanoindentation, energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, nanoindentation, confocal microscopy, atomic force microscopy, linear polarization, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy and copper ion release assaying were performed during the course of this research

Variation and correlation in the timing of breeding of North Atlantic seabirds across multiple scales

1. Timing of breeding, an important driver of fitness in many populations, is widely studied in the context of global change, yet despite considerable efforts to identify environmental drivers of seabird nesting phenology, for most populations we lack evidence of strong drivers. Here we adopt an alternative approach, examining the degree to which different populations positively covary in their annual phenology to infer whether phenological responses to environmental drivers are likely to be (i) shared across species at a range of spatial scales, (ii) shared across populations of a species, or (iii) idiosyncratic to populations. 2. We combined 51 long-term datasets on breeding phenology spanning 50 years from nine seabird species across 29 North Atlantic sites and examined the extent to which different populations share early versus late breeding seasons depending on a hierarchy of spatial scales comprising breeding site, small-scale region, large-scale region and the whole North Atlantic. 3. In about a third of cases we found laying dates of populations of different species sharing the same breeding site or small-scale breeding region were positively correlated, which is consistent with the hypothesis that they share phenological responses to the same environmental conditions. In comparison we found no evidence for positive phenological covariation among populations across species aggregated at larger spatial scales. 4. In general we found little evidence for positive phenological covariation between populations of a single species, and in many instances the inter-year variation specific to a population was substantial, consistent with each population responding idiosyncratically to local environmental conditions. Black-legged kittiwake (Rissa tridactyla) was the exception, with populations exhibiting positive covariation in laying dates that decayed with the distance between breeding sites, suggesting that populations may be responding to a similar driver. 5. Our approach sheds light on the potential factors that may drive phenology in our study species, thus furthering our understanding of the scales at which different seabirds interact with interannual variation in their environment. We also identify additional systems and phenological questions to which our inferential approach could be applied

Variation and correlation in the timing of breeding of North Atlantic seabirds across multiple scales

Timing of breeding, an important driver of fitness in many populations, is widely studied in the context of global change, yet despite considerable efforts to identify environmental drivers of seabird nesting phenology, for most populations we lack evidence of strong drivers. Here we adopt an alternative approach, examining the degree to which different populations positively covary in their annual phenology to infer whether phenological responses to environmental drivers are likely to be (a) shared across species at a range of spatial scales, (b) shared across populations of a species or (c) idiosyncratic to populations. We combined 51 long-term datasets on breeding phenology spanning 50 years from nine seabird species across 29 North Atlantic sites and examined the extent to which different populations share early versus late breeding seasons depending on a hierarchy of spatial scales comprising breeding site, small-scale region, large-scale region and the whole North Atlantic. In about a third of cases, we found laying dates of populations of different species sharing the same breeding site or small-scale breeding region were positively correlated, which is consistent with the hypothesis that they share phenological responses to the same environmental conditions. In comparison, we found no evidence for positive phenological covariation among populations across species aggregated at larger spatial scales. In general, we found little evidence for positive phenological covariation between populations of a single species, and in many instances the inter-year variation specific to a population was substantial, consistent with each population responding idiosyncratically to local environmental conditions. Black-legged kittiwake Rissa tridactyla was the exception, with populations exhibiting positive covariation in laying dates that decayed with the distance between breeding sites, suggesting that populations may be responding to a similar driver. Our approach sheds light on the potential factors that may drive phenology in our study species, thus furthering our understanding of the scales at which different seabirds interact with interannual variation in their environment. We also identify additional systems and phenological questions to which our inferential approach could be applied

Variation and correlation in the timing of breeding of North Atlantic seabirds across multiple scales

1. Timing of breeding, an important driver of fitness in many populations, is widely studied in the context of global change, yet despite considerable efforts to identify environmental drivers of seabird nesting phenology, for most populations we lack evidence of strong drivers. Here we adopt an alternative approach, examining the degree to which different populations positively covary in their annual phenology to infer whether phenological responses to environmental drivers are likely to be (a) shared across species at a range of spatial scales, (b) shared across populations of a species or (c) idiosyncratic to populations. 2. We combined 51 long-term datasets on breeding phenology spanning 50 years from nine seabird species across 29 North Atlantic sites and examined the extent to which different populations share early versus late breeding seasons depending on a hierarchy of spatial scales comprising breeding site, small-scale region, large-scale region and the whole North Atlantic. 3. In about a third of cases, we found laying dates of populations of different species sharing the same breeding site or small-scale breeding region were positively correlated, which is consistent with the hypothesis that they share phenological responses to the same environmental conditions. In comparison, we found no evidence for positive phenological covariation among populations across species aggregated at larger spatial scales. 4. In general, we found little evidence for positive phenological covariation between populations of a single species, and in many instances the inter-year variation specific to a population was substantial, consistent with each population responding idiosyncratically to local environmental conditions. Black-legged kittiwake Rissa tridactyla was the exception, with populations exhibiting positive covariation in laying dates that decayed with the distance between breeding sites, suggesting that populations may be responding to a similar driver. 5. Our approach sheds light on the potential factors that may drive phenology in our study species, thus furthering our understanding of the scales at which different seabirds interact with interannual variation in their environment. We also identify additional systems and phenological questions to which our inferential approach could be applied. breeding time, climate change, macroecology, multispecies, phenolog