Pay and grade differentials at the World Bank

Large international organizations such as the World Bank pursue many objectives in hiring policies, including reduced costs, cultural diversity, and the avoidance of discrimination. There can be sharp tradeoffs between these objectives. Diversity is enhanced by recruiting from an international labor market, for example, but international organizations face unusually large differences in reservation wages for staff capable of doing the same work. One way to reduce costs would be to pay employees their reservation wages, which implies unequal pay for equal work, or discrimination. The authors show how these tradeoffs are resolved in the World Bank's hiring processes. They estimate disparities in salary and grades between men and women and by country of origin that cannot be attributed to differences in the productive characteristics of workers. The results indicate that about half the salary and grade differentials between men and women and staff from high- and low-income countries are attributable to differences in worker characteristics. They explore a number of alternative explanations for the rest of the salary and grade differentials, including omitted-variable bias, quotas imposed to ensure diversity, and discrimination in hiring and promoting. They argue that neither omitted-variable bias nor quotas are compelling explanations for disparities, and that discrimination probably exists, although certainly less than would be implied by a cost-minimizing hiring policy. A shift seems to be occurring in the hiring process of the Bank, possibly because 1) the application pool, including women and Part II nationals (from developing countries) has significantly improved in quality; 2) information gathering during hiring has intensified, decreasing guesswork; 3) there is more incentive to staff from minority groups; and 4) the Bank's increasing diversity in terms of gender and nationality groups is more conducive to high performance by the people against whom there may previously have been bias.Public Health Promotion,Health Monitoring&Evaluation,Population&Development,Labor Management and Relations,Gender and Development,Primary Education,Health Monitoring&Evaluation,Labor Management and Relations,Population&Development,Agricultural Knowledge&Information Systems

Online Disclosure Boundaries and Marital Quality Among Facebook Users

AbstractCurrent marital and social media research has revealed that married couples are often unsuspecting of the negative marital ramifications associated with impulsive disclosure to Facebook friends, poor disclosure boundaries, and inappropriate online emotional affairs until the affair has been revealed and the emotional detachment has already incited a legal divorce. The purpose of this study was to examine the correlation, if any, between online intimate disclosure with another sex, online disclosure boundaries, and marital quality among Facebook users. The theoretical framework for this study was the social penetration theory. A quantitative, nonexperimental correlational research design was used. A total of 165 online questionnaires were collected via Facebook and the Walden Participant Pool. The findings revealed a statistically significant relationship between online intimate disclosure with another sex (emotional online infidelity) and marital quality. In line with current literature, there was a positive correlation between online disclosure boundaries (netiquette) and marital quality. However, the relationship was not strong enough for online disclosure boundaries (netiquette) to be considered a significant contributor to the marital quality of heterosexual married Facebook users. The study findings may lead to positive social change by educating those in the field of psychology, particularly those who specialize in marriage and family therapy, on the importance of conceptualizing spouses’ psychological response to the discovery of a Facebook affair as a multilayered, trauma-based clinical issue. Using study findings, counselors may be to develop interventions that help heterosexual married individuals to better navigate sharing of personal details on Facebook, which may improve their marital satisfaction

Estimation of potential evapotranspiration from extraterrestrial radiation, air temperature and humidity to assess future climate change effects on the vegetation of the Northern Great Plains, USA

The potential evapotranspiration (PET) that would occur with unlimited plant access to water is a central driver of simulated plant growth in many ecological models. PET is influenced by solar and long wave radiation, temperature, wind speed, and humidity, but it is often modeled as a function of temperature alone. This approach can cause biases in projections of future climate impacts in part because it confounds the effects of warming due to increased greenhouse gases with that which would be caused by increased radiation from the sun. We developed an algorithm for linking PET to extraterrestrial solar radiation (incoming top-of atmosphere solar radiation), as well as temperature and atmospheric water vapor pressure, and incorporated this algorithm into the dynamic global vegetation model MC1. We tested the new algorithm for the Northern Great Plains, USA, whose remaining grasslands are threatened by continuing woody encroachment. Both the new and the standard temperature-dependent MC1 algorithm adequately simulated current PET, as compared to the more rigorous PenPan model of Rotstayn et al. (2006). However, compared to the standard algorithm, the new algorithm projected a much more gradual increase in PET over the 21st century for three contrasting future climates. This difference led to lower simulated drought effects and hence greater woody encroachment with the new algorithm, illustrating the importance of more rigorous calculations of PET in ecological models dealing with climate change

Estimation of potential evapotranspiration from extraterrestrial radiation, air temperature and humidity to assess future climate change effects on the vegetation of the Northern Great Plains, USA

The potential evapotranspiration (PET) that would occur with unlimited plant access to water is a central driver of simulated plant growth in many ecological models. PET is influenced by solar and long wave radiation, temperature, wind speed, and humidity, but it is often modeled as a function of temperature alone. This approach can cause biases in projections of future climate impacts in part because it confounds the effects of warming due to increased greenhouse gases with that which would be caused by increased radiation from the sun. We developed an algorithm for linking PET to extraterrestrial solar radiation (incoming top-of atmosphere solar radiation), as well as temperature and atmospheric water vapor pressure, and incorporated this algorithm into the dynamic global vegetation model MC1. We tested the new algorithm for the Northern Great Plains, USA, whose remaining grasslands are threatened by continuing woody encroachment. Both the new and the standard temperature-dependent MC1 algorithm adequately simulated current PET, as compared to the more rigorous PenPan model of Rotstayn et al. (2006). However, compared to the standard algorithm, the new algorithm projected a much more gradual increase in PET over the 21st century for three contrasting future climates. This difference led to lower simulated drought effects and hence greater woody encroachment with the new algorithm, illustrating the importance of more rigorous calculations of PET in ecological models dealing with climate change

3D representation of soil distribution: An approach for understanding pedogenesis Représentation 3D des sols, apports à la compréhension de la pédogenèse

International audienceSoils are characterised by a spatial variability in the three dimensions (3D) of space. However, 3D studies remain scarce due to the qualitative nature of many soil horizon characteristics, notably the horizon designation. Indeed, existing 3D tools are mainly developed for quantitative data. To solve this difficulty, we propose a new approach based on the interpolation of the horizon thickness to derive digital elevation models for both the upper and the lower limits of each horizon. This approach was applied to Planosols previously extensively studied with 2D approaches. The pseudo 3D obtained representation evidences soil processes that were missed in 2D approaches. As an example, we evidence the impact of differential weathering, resulting from the mineralogical heterogeneity of the parent material, on the subsequent pedogenesis. Les sols sont des continuums tridimensionnels (3D), caractérisés par une variabilité spatiale dans l'ensemble des directions de l'espace, mais les études 3D demeurent rares. Une des difficultés majeures des approches 3D est due à la nature qualitative de nombreuses caractéristiques des horizons, dans la mesure où la plupart des outils 3D existants sont principalement développés pour l'interpolation 3D de données quantitatives. En substitution à l'interpolation directe de la variable « nom de l'horizon », nous proposons une approche basée sur l'interpolation de l'épaisseur des horizons pour calculer les modèles numériques d'altitude correspondant aux limites de chaque horizon, permettant ainsi une visualisation pseudo 3D. Cette étude, appliquée à des Planosols bien caractérisés en 2D par ailleurs, montre que la représentation 3D des sols permet de souligner des processus omis lors des approches précédentes, tels que l'impact de l'altération différentielle, résultant de l'hétérogénéité initiale du matériau parental, sur une pédogenèse ultérieure

A spatial study of the relationships between streamwater acidity and geology, soils and relief (Vosges, northeastern France)

We have used a geographic information system (GIS) to study the relationships between streamwater pH and alkalinity at base flow with geology, soils and relief in 100 forested catchments located in the sandstone portion of the Vosges mountains. where atmospheric deposition and forest cover can be considered homogeneous. At base flow, streamwater acidity depends primarily on bedrock and soil content of weatherable minerals whose dissolution neutralizes acidity. Catchments are developed on three main stratigraphic levels, consisting of two sandstone layers rich in weatherable minerals, called "rich", at the upper and lower extremity of the stratigraphic sequence, and a quartzitic sandstone, called "poor", in between. Catchments were classified into three major groups in relation to the stratigraphic sequence: (1) only "poor" bedrock, (2) "rich" upstream and "poor" downstream, (3) "poor" upstream and "rich" downstream. Results showed that streamwater pH differed depending on the group. Within each group, the pH was related to bedrock, soil and relief characteristics of the catchments. The relative surface covered by the bedrock located in the lower part of the catchment explained more than 50% of the variability of pH. More than 20% of variability could be explained by soil types in catchments composed of poor' bedrock only. Soil type apparently did not influence streamwater pH in the other groups. The catchment area, probably related to the increase of soil volume and water residence time, explained up to 20% of pH variability, depending on the catchment type

Validation of test performance characteristics and minimal clinically important difference of the 6-minute walk test in patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis

SummaryBackgroundThe 6-minute walk test distance (6MWD) has been shown to be a valid and responsive outcome measure in patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF). The analyses were based, however, on a single phase 3 trial and require validation in an independent cohort.ObjectiveTo confirm the performance characteristics and estimates of minimal clinically important difference (MCID) of 6MWD in an independent cohort of patients with IPF.MethodsPatients randomized to placebo in the phase 3 CAPACITY trials who had a baseline 6MWD measurement were included in these analyses. The 6MWD and other functional parameters (lung function, dyspnea, and health-related quality of life) were measured at baseline and 24-week intervals. Validity and responsiveness were examined using Spearman correlation coefficients. The MCID was estimated using distribution- and anchor-based methods.ResultsThe analysis comprised 338 patients. Baseline 6MWD was significantly correlated with lung function measures, patient-reported outcomes, and quality-of-life measures (validity). Compared with baseline 6MWD, change in 6MWD (responsiveness) showed stronger correlations with change in lung function parameters and quality-of-life measures. Dyspnea measured by the University of California San Diego Shortness of Breath Questionnaire showed the strongest correlations with 6MWD (baseline: coefficient −0.35; 48-week change: coefficient −0.37; both p < 0.001). The distribution-based analyses of MCID using standard error of measurement yielded an MCID of 37 m, and distribution-based analyses by effect size resulted in 29.2 m. The MCID by anchor-based analysis using criterion referencing (health events of hospitalization or death) was 21.7 m.ConclusionsThe 6MWD is a valid and responsive clinical endpoint, which provides objective and clinically meaningful information regarding functional status and near-term prognosis. These results confirm previous findings in an independent cohort of patients with IPF