From TRIPS to FTAs and Back: Re-Conceptualising the Role of a Multilateral IP Framework in a TRIPS-Plus World

International intellectual property (IP) protection is increasingly governed by a network of bilateral and regional treaties. Most of these contain obligations on the protection and enforcement of IP that set significantly higher standards than those of the Agreement on Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS), commonly referred to as ‘TRIPS-plus’. Human rights bodies, non-governmental organisations (NGOs), and academic commentators often criticise these standards for undermining flexibilities available under TRIPS. Such policy space, however, is critical to design national IP laws in accordance with domestic needs. This chapter makes a case for the continued relevance of the TRIPS Agreement as an overarching, multilateral framework. My argument is based on the role treaty law affords to the object and purpose expressed in Articles 7 and 8 TRIPS. They have not only been recognised as essential for promoting access to medicines in the Doha Declaration on TRIPS and Public Health. As integral objectives and principles of TRIPS, Articles 7 and 8 limit the ability of World Trade Organization (WTO) Members to modify their IP-related treaty obligations inter se. Based on their negotiation history and common understandings expressed by WTO Members, I argue for an enhanced role of TRIPS’ object and purpose as a loose constitutional frame for IP commitments in bilateral and regional treaties

A numerical approach to assess the impact of the SLM laser parameters on thermal variables

Due to extraordinarily high heating and cooling rates, understanding the selective laser melting (SLM) process remains a challenge. To evaluate the impact of processing parameters on distinct underlying surfaces, a three-dimensional finite element model is presented. To forecast the temperature distribution inside a finite solid model, a moving Gaussian heat source was created to scan the model with temperature-dependent material properties. In the finite model, the impact of processing factors such as laser power, scan rate, and scan spacing were investigated to measure thermal variables such as cooling rate, thermal gradient, and solidification rate in a layer with solid and powder bases. The maximum track temperature was observed to be increasing over the whole track length, which had a substantial influence on the thermal gradient, cooling rate, and solidification rate. The maximum track temperature, melt pool form, and thermal variables were shown to be strongly influenced by laser power and scan speed when compared to scan spacing. Furthermore, the underlying base had a substantial influence on the observed temperature values and melt pool shap

Context-based FISH localization of genomic rearrangements within chromosome 15q11.2q13 duplicons

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>Segmental duplicons (SDs) predispose to an increased frequency of chromosomal rearrangements. These rearrangements can cause a diverse range of phenotypes due to haploinsufficiency, in <it>cis </it>positional effects or gene interruption. Genomic microarray analysis has revealed gene dosage changes adjacent to duplicons, but the high degree of similarity between duplicon sequences has confounded unequivocal assignment of chromosome breakpoints within these intervals. In this study, we localize rearrangements within duplicon-enriched regions of Angelman/Prader-Willi (AS/PWS) syndrome chromosomal deletions with fluorescence <it>in situ </it>hybridization (FISH).</p> <p>Results</p> <p>Breakage intervals in AS deletions were localized recursively with short, coordinate-defined, single copy (SC) and low copy (LC) genomic FISH probes. These probes were initially coincident with duplicons and regions of previously reported breakage in AS/PWS. Subsequently, probes developed from adjacent genomic intervals more precisely delineated deletion breakage intervals involving genes, pseudogenes and duplicons in 15q11.2q13. The observed variability in the deletion boundaries within previously described Class I and Class II deletion AS samples is related to the local genomic architecture in this chromosomal region.</p> <p>Conclusions</p> <p>Chromosome 15 abnormalities associated with SDs were precisely delineated at a resolution equivalent to genomic Southern analysis. This context-dependent approach can define the boundaries of chromosome rearrangements for other genomic disorders associated with SDs.</p

Effects of acetochlor (herbicide) on the survival and avoidance behaviour of spiders

This study was designed to evaluate the potential effects of acetochlor (herbicide) on the survival and avoidance behaviour of lycosid spiders example Lycosa terrestris. During the topical toxicity experiment, P. birmanica was found to be more susceptible to acetochlor than L. terrestris. Although, there was 10% mortality at field rate concentration by topical exposure, we did not observe any mortality during residual toxicity experiment for both spider species even at double field rate concentration. There was no difference in the time spent by both species on the herbicide or water treated part of filter paper. It was concluded that use of acetochlor at the recommended rate in the agricultural field is safe for tested spider species, which are important biological control agents in the study area.Key words: Herbicide, residual toxicity, acetochlor

Effect of carbofuran on the diversity and mean abundance of ground spiders

The effect of carbofuran on the diversity, richness, evenness and abundance of ground spiders is documented in the present study. Two fields (control and treated) were selected in district Kasur during 2008 and 2009. Pitfall traps were used to collect ground spiders. A total of 1629 specimens of spiders, belonging to 8 families, 16 genera and 24 species were recoded from control field while 1173 specimens belonging to 8 families, 14 genera and 20 species were recorded from the treated field. The most dominant family and species in both the fields were Lycosidae and Lycosa terrestris, respectively. Family Lycosidae accounted more than 90% of the total spider sample. Diversity, richness and evenness of ground spiders in the treated and untreated field did not differ. However, the abundance of dominat spiders declined significantly in the carbofuran treated field. It is concluded that the use of carbofuran is a serious threat to the ground spiders, the important group of biological control agents. So, the use of carbofuran should be minimized in the fields.Key words: Ground spiders, carbofuran, natural predators, pest reduction

Pathomorphological effects of Alloxan induced acute hypoglycaemia in rabbits

Alloxan is one of the frequently used beta-cytotoxic agents for the induction of Type-1 diabetes mellitus in animal models and is the drug of choice in rabbits. Its beta-cytotoxic action results in a sudden release of insulin leading to severe hypoglycaemia and even mortality if glucose therapy is not given. In the present investigation the pathological effects of alloxan induced acute hypoglycaemia were studied in rabbits. New Zealand White rabbits, 1–1.5 kg body weight, were administered alloxan @100 mg/kg b.w., as a single intravenous dose. Blood glucose levels were monitored (0 h, 20 min, 1 h, and then hourly up to 5 h) and clinical signs noted. Rabbits dead due to hypoglycaemia were necropsied and histopathology performed. Severe histopathological changes were observed especially in the brain (neuronal degeneration and necrosis), kidneys (nephrosis, nephritis) and liver (hepatosis, hepatitis) and also, other organs. Histopathological observation of beta-cytolysis was suggestive that the drug induced hypoglycaemia is insulin mediated. It was concluded that acute hypoglycaemia causes severe pathological changes and the alloxan induced immediate hypoglycaemia if not managed in time, might exacerbate the pathological effects of hyperglycaemia in the induced diabetic models.Keywords: Alloxan hypoglycaemia; Pathology; Rabbit

Phytochemical Screening and Hepatoprotective Effect of Alhagi maurorum Boiss (Leguminosae) Against Paracetamol-Induced Hepatotoxicity in Rabbits

Purpose: To evaluate the hepatoprotective activity of aqueous-ethanol (30:70 %) extract of Alhagi maurorum Boiss. (Leguminosae) whole plant against paracetamol-induced liver injury in experimental rabbits.Methods: Aqueous-ethanol extract of Alhagi maurorum at doses of 250 mg/kg and 500 mg/kg body weight, p.o., was administered for 7 days in paracetamol (2 gm/kg, s.c.) intoxicated rabbits and compared with silymarine (50 mg/kg, p.o.)-treated rabbits. Biochemical parameters, alkaline phosphatase (ALP), serum glutamic oxalacetic transaminase (SGOT), serum glutamic pyruvic transaminase (SGPT) and total bilirubin (TB) levels were recorded to investigate the degree of improvement in the conditions of the rabbits. The liver was removed, washed with normal saline and preserved in 10 % formalin and used in histopathological studies of hepatic architecture by microscopy. Phytochemical screening of the extract was also carried out.Results: The levels of biochemical parameters were increased in paracetamol intoxicated rabbits when compared with the normal group. The extract, at doses of 250 and 500 mg/kg, exhibited significant (p &lt; 0.001) reduction in biochemical parameters (ALP, SGOT, SGPT and TB). Hepatoprotective activity was also confirmed by histopathological findings. Furthermore, the phytochemical profile of the extract revealed the presence of tannins, alkaloids, saponins and flavonoids.Conclusion: These results suggest that Alhagi maurorum extract possesses significant hepatoprotective effect against paracetamol-induced hepatotoxicity and this may be due to the presence of flavonoids and tannins.Keywords: Alhagi maurorum, Hepatoprotective, Paracetamol, Silymarin, Histopatholog

Pharyngitis and sore throat: A review

Pharyngitis is a sore throat caused by inflammation of the back of the throat. It is one of the most common reasons for visits to family physicians. Throat may be scratchy and swallowing can be painful. Usually, a sore throat is the sign of another illness, such as a cold or the flu. In this review article, epidemiology, national perspective, regional perspective, pathogenesis, clinical diagnosis, clinical presentation and causes of pharyngitis was described.Key words: Pharyngitis, sore throat, inflammation

The increasing burden of tuberculosis in pregnant women, newborns and infants under 6 months of age in Durban, KwaZulu Natal

Objectives. In spite of the global epidemic of tuberculosis (TB) which has been exacerbated by HIV, the impact of these coinfections on maternal and perinatal health has been limited. We document new evidence from Durban, KwaZulu- Natal, on the increasing effects of TB in pregnant women, neonates and infants.Method. Women with TB were prospectively tudied at the antenatal clinics and obstetric and labour wards at King Edward VIII Hospital, Durban, between 1996 and 1998. The incidence of TB was calculated, and the population attributable fraction of TB due to HIV infection in pregnancy was estimated. Concurrently, culture-confirmed cases of Mycobacterium tubaculosis in neonates and infants under 6 months of age at the hospital were documented.Results. One hundred and forty-six cases of maternal TB were detected. TB occurred in 0.1% and 0.6% of maternities in 1996 and 1998 respectively. Overall, TB rate for HIV non-infected maternities was 72.9/ 105, and for HIV-infected maternities , 774.5/ 105. The attributable fraction of TB related to HIV in pregnancy was 71.7%; 10.3% of these mothers died. There was a 2.2-fold increase in the caseload of culture-confirmed TB in neonates and young infants at the hospital.Conclusion. In regions where TB and HIV preval nee is high, efforts to improve maternal and perinatal health must include the detection of TB in pregnancy