Amplified fragment length polymorphism analysis in strain typing and identification of Listeria and Clostridium species

DNA-pohjaiset genotyypitysmenetelmät ovat nykyään tärkeitä työkaluja bakteerien tunnistamisessa ja sukulaisuussuhteiden selvittämisessä. Eri genotyypitysmenetelmien soveltuvuudessa eri bakteerilajeille sekä erilaisiin tutkimustarkoituksiin on kuitenkin eroja. Tässä väitöstutkimuksessa selvitettiin amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) –menetelmän soveltuvuutta elintarvikevälitteisten tautia-aiheuttavien bakteerien Listeria monocytogeneksen, Clostridium botulinumin ja Clostridium perfringensin geneettiseen tyypittämiseen. Väitöstutkimuksessa kehitettiin AFLP-menetelmästä hyvin erotteleva sovellutus L. monocytogenes, C. botulinum ja C. perfringens kantojen karakterisointiin. Menetelmän todettiin olevan hyvin toistettava, nopea sekä helppokäyttöinen. Tutkimuksessa todettiin myös, että AFLP-menetelmää voidaan käyttää apuna eri listeria- ja klostridi-lajien tunnistamisessa. Menetelmästä on hyötyä etenkin klostridi-lajien diagnostiikassa, sillä nykyisin käytössä olevat diagnostiset menetelmät ovat osin puutteellisia. Kehitetyn AFLP sovellutuksen avulla luodut AFLP-tyypitystulokset voidaan kerätä tietokantoihin, joita voidaan hyödyntää mm. epidemiologisissa tutkimuksissa, elintarviketeollisuuden kontaminaatioreittien selvittämisessä, ruokamyrkytysepidemia selvityksissä sekä listeria- ja klostridi-lajien tunnistamisessa. Väitöstyössä tutkittiin AFLP-menetelmän avulla L. monocytogeneksen kontaminaatioreittejä eineksiä valmistavassa elintarvikelaitoksessa kahdeksan vuoden aikana. Siivousrutiinien, valmistettavan tuotteen ja osastoinnin todettiin vaikuttavan tuotantoympäristön kontaminaatiotilanteeseen kuumennettuja eineksiä valmistavilla osastoilla. Osastolla, jolla valmistettiin eineksiä, joiden valmistusprosessiin ei kuulu kuumennuskäsittelyä, raaka-aineiden todettiin saastuttavan valmiita tuotteita. Siten raaka-aineiden laatuun tulisi kiinnittää erityistä huomiota kun valmistetaan eineksiä, joita ei kuumennuskäsitellä. Lisäksi tutkimuksessa osoitettiin, että tuotantolinjan rakenteelliset muutokset voivat edesauttaa elintarvikelaitosta pääsemään eroon listeriakontaminaatiosta. Tutkimuksessa selvitettiin myös elintarvikkeiden tuotantoympäristössä pitkäkestoisen (persistoivan) kontaminaation aiheuttavien sekä satunnaisesti (sporadisesti) esiintyvien L. monocytogenes –kantojen välisiä eroja AFLP- ja pulssikenttäelektroforeesi-menetelmillä. Vaikka persistoivien kantojen todettiin eroavan sporadisista kannoista, ei persistoivilla kannoilla todettu olevan yhteistä geneettistä alkuperää.In epidemiological studies, techniques that effectively discriminate between individual bacterial strains are essential. Recent developments in molecular techniques necessitate an ongoing need to tailor new genotyping methods for optimal characterization of different bacterial species and to evaluate their performance and suitability for research purposes. In this thesis amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) analysis was tailored for optimal characterization of Listeria monocytogenes and Clostridium botulinum. The suitability of the developed AFLP protocol to type L. monocytogenes, C. botulinum and Clostridium perfringens at strain level was evaluated. AFLP proved to be a highly reproducible, easy-to-use, relatively fast and highly discriminative approach. When AFLP was applied to L. monocytogenes strains, its discriminatory power was shown to equal that of PFGE, which is considered the current gold standard for molecular fingerprinting of L. monocytogenes. These features make AFLP analysis a useful alternative to other genotyping methods in, for example, outbreak investigations and contamination route studies. Since phenotypic identification of Clostridium isolates is laborious, the suitability of AFLP for genomic species identification was assessed. The AFLP technique was applied to 129 strains representing 24 different Clostridium species. AFLP differentiated all species tested, except for Clostridium ramosum and Clostridium limosum. AFLP also differentiated between six different Listeria species. If AFLP profiles of well-defined strains are collected in identification libraries, the database can be a valuable additional tool for identification of Clostridium and Listeria species. Due to high throughput of samples, AFLP proved to be especially suitable for screening large numbers of isolates. AFLP was also used to trace contamination routes of L. monocytogenes in a chilled food processing plant producing ready-to-eat and ready-to-reheat meals during an 8-year period. Cleaning routines, product type and degree of compartmentalization seemed to have an influence on the contamination status in compartments that produced cooked meals. In addition, raw materials were shown to cause contamination of uncooked meals. Thus, special attention should be paid to quality control of raw ingredients when uncooked ready-to-eat meals are produced. This work also demonstrated that structural adjustments of a production line may facilitate the eradication of L. monocytogenes from the food processing environment. AFLP and PFGE analysis of sporadic L. monocytogenes strains and strains that cause persistent plant contamination revealed that persistent strains differ from sporadic strains. However, no specific evolutionary lineage of persistent strains was observed

High prevalence of Clostridium botulinum in vegetarian sausages

Clostridium botulinum is a significant food safety concern due to its ability to produce highly potent neurotoxin and resistant endospores. Vegetarian sausages have become a popular source of plant protein and alternative for meat products. While vegetarian sausages have not been linked to botulism, numerous outbreaks due to preserved vegetables suggest a frequent occurrence of C. botulinum spores in the raw material. The product formulation of vegetarian sausages involves limited NaCl and preservatives, and shelf-lives may be several months. The safety of vegetarian sausages thus relies mainly on heat treatment and chilled storage. The main food safety concern is C. botulinum Group II that can grow and produce toxin at refrigeration temperatures. Here we show a high overall prevalence (32%) of C. botulinum in 74 samples of vegetarian sausages from seven producers. Both Groups I and II strains and genes for neurotoxin types A, B, E and F were detected in the products. The highest cell counts (1200 spores/kg) were observed for C. botulinum Group II in products with remaining shelf-lives of 6 months at the time of purchase. We conclude that vacuum-packaged vegetarian sausage products frequently contain C. botulinum spores and may possess a high risk of C. botulinum growth and toxin production. Chilled storage below 3°C and thorough reheating before consumption are warranted.Peer reviewe

Insights into the Phylogeny and Evolution of Cold Shock Proteins: From Enteropathogenic Yersinia and Escherichia coli to Eubacteria

Psychrotrophic foodborne pathogens, such as enteropathogenic Yersinia, which are able to survive and multiply at low temperatures, require cold shock proteins (Csps). The Csp superfamily consists of a diverse group of homologous proteins, which have been found throughout the eubacteria. They are related to cold shock tolerance and other cellular processes. Csps are mainly named following the convention of those in Escherichia coli. However, the nomenclature of certain Csps reflects neither their sequences nor functions, which can be confusing. Here, we performed phylogenetic analyses on Csp sequences in psychrotrophic enteropathogenic Yersinia and E. coli. We found that representative Csps in enteropathogenic Yersinia and E. coli can be clustered into six phylogenetic groups. When we extended the analysis to cover Enterobacteriales, the same major groups formed. Moreover, we investigated the evolutionary and structural relationships and the origin time of Csp superfamily members in eubacteria using nucleotide-level comparisons. Csps in eubacteria were classified into five clades and 12 subclades. The most recent common ancestor of Csp genes was estimated to have existed 3585 million years ago, indicating that Csps have been important since the beginning of evolution and have enabled bacterial growth in unfavorable conditions

Efficient DNA fingerprinting of Clostridium botulinum types A, B, E, and F by amplified fragment length polymorphism analysis.

Amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) analysis was applied to characterize 33 group I and 37 group II Clostridium botulinum strains. Four restriction enzyme and 30 primer combinations were screened to tailor the AFLP technique for optimal characterization of C. botulinum. The enzyme combination HindIII and HpyCH4IV, with primers having one selective nucleotide apiece (Hind-C and Hpy-A), was selected. AFLP clearly differentiated between C. botulinum groups I and II; group-specific clusters showed <10% similarity between proteolytic and nonproteolytic C. botulinum strains. In addition, group-specific fragments were detected in both groups. All strains studied were typeable by AFLP, and a total of 42 AFLP types were identified. Extensive diversity was observed among strains of C. botulinum type E, whereas group I had lower genetic biodiversity. These results indicate that AFLP is a fast, highly discriminating, and reproducible DNA fingerprinting method with excellent typeability, which, in addition to its suitability for typing at strain level, can be used for C. botulinum group identification

Insights into the Phylogeny and Evolution of Cold Shock Proteins: From Enteropathogenic Yersinia and Escherichia coli to Eubacteria

Psychrotrophic foodborne pathogens, such as enteropathogenic Yersinia, which are able to survive and multiply at low temperatures, require cold shock proteins (Csps). The Csp superfamily consists of a diverse group of homologous proteins, which have been found throughout the eubacteria. They are related to cold shock tolerance and other cellular processes. Csps are mainly named following the convention of those in Escherichia coli. However, the nomenclature of certain Csps reflects neither their sequences nor functions, which can be confusing. Here, we performed phylogenetic analyses on Csp sequences in psychrotrophic enteropathogenic Yersinia and E. coli. We found that representative Csps in enteropathogenic Yersinia and E. coli can be clustered into six phylogenetic groups. When we extended the analysis to cover Enterobacteriales, the same major groups formed. Moreover, we investigated the evolutionary and structural relationships and the origin time of Csp superfamily members in eubacteria using nucleotide-level comparisons. Csps in eubacteria were classified into five clades and 12 subclades. The most recent common ancestor of Csp genes was estimated to have existed 3585 million years ago, indicating that Csps have been important since the beginning of evolution and have enabled bacterial growth in unfavorable conditions

Prevalence and Dynamics of Pathogenic Yersinia enterocolitica 4/O:3 Among Finnish Piglets, Fattening Pigs, and Sows

Pigs are considered the main reservoir of Yersinia enterocolitica, and hence, understanding the ecology of this foodborne pathogen at the farm level is crucial. We calculated Bayesian estimates for the ability of a commercial enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) diagnostic test kit to detect antibodies against pathogenic Yersinia in pigs. The sensitivity and specificity of the test were 75.4% and 98.1%, respectively. We also studied the dynamics of Y. enterocolitica infection in 3 farrow-to-finish pig farms by following the same 30 pens of pigs through their lifetime from farrowing unit to slaughterhouse. Each farm was sampled 4 times, and 864 fecal and 730 serum samples were collected altogether. Pathogenic Y. enterocolitica 4/O:3 was isolated from 31.6% of the fecal samples by culturing, and Yersinia antibodies were detected in 38.2% of the serum samples with the commercial ELISA test. The pathogen was not isolated from farrowing units or all-in/all-out weaning units. However, in the weaning and fattening units using continuous management systems, the pathogen was isolated from every pen at some point of the study. After the pigs were transported into slaughterhouse, 150 tonsils were collected and 96.7% were positive by culturing. Among the strains isolated from feces and tonsils, 56 different genotypes of pathogenic Y. enterocolitica 4/O:3 were found by multilocus variable-number tandem-repeat analysis (MLVA). Finally, we collected tonsils of 266 sows from 115 farrowing farms, and Y. enterocolitica 4/O:3 was detected in 6.0% of the samples by the culture method, whereas 77.1% of the tonsils were serologically positive; the estimate for true seroprevalence was 95.8%. In conclusion, sows may not be the main source of Y. enterocolitica for piglets, although sows may still play a role in maintaining Y. enterocolitica in pig farms. Instead, pigs appear to get this foodborne pathogen mainly during the fattening period, especially if continuous management is applied.Peer reviewe

Changes in Transcriptome of Yersinia pseudotuberculosis IP32953 Grown at 3 and 28 degrees C Detected by RNA Sequencing Shed Light on Cold Adaptation

Yersinia pseudotuberculosis is a bacterium that not only survives, but also thrives, proliferates, and remains infective at cold-storage temperatures, making it an adept foodborne pathogen. We analyzed the differences in gene expression between Y. pseudotuberculosis IP32953 grown at 3 and 28°C to investigate which genes were significantly more expressed at low temperature at different phases of growth. We isolated and sequenced the RNA from six distinct corresponding growth points at both temperatures to also outline the expression patterns of the differentially expressed genes. Genes involved in motility, chemotaxis, phosphotransferase systems (PTS), and ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters of different nutrients such as fructose and mannose showed higher levels of transcripts at 3°C. At the beginning of growth, especially genes involved in securing nutrients, glycolysis, transcription, and translation were upregulated at 3°C. To thrive as well as it does at low temperature, Y. pseudotuberculosis seems to require certain cold shock proteins, especially those encoded by yptb3585, yptb3586, yptb2414, yptb2950, and yptb1423, and transcription factors, like Rho, IF-1, and RbfA, to maintain its protein synthesis. We also found that genes encoding RNA-helicases CsdA (yptb0468), RhlE (yptb1214), and DbpA (yptb1652), which unwind frozen secondary structures of nucleic acids with cold shock proteins, were significantly more expressed at 3°C, indicating that these RNA-helicases are important or even necessary during cold. Genes involved in excreting poisonous spermidine and acquiring compatible solute glycine betaine, by either uptake or biosynthesis, showed higher levels of transcripts at low temperatures. This is the first finding of a strong connection between the aforementioned genes and the cold adaptation of Y. pseudotuberculosis. Understanding the mechanisms behind the cold adaptation of Y. pseudotuberculosis is crucial for controlling its growth during cold storage of food, and will also shed light on microbial cold adaptation in general.Peer reviewe

An 8-year surveillance of the diversity and persistence of Listeria monocytogenes in a chilled food processing plant analyzed by amplified fragment length polymorphism.

Reprinted with permission from Journal of Food Protection. Copyright held by the International Association for Food Protection, Des Moines, U.S.A.Contamination routes of Listeria monocytogenes were examined in a chilled food processing plant that produced ready-to-eat and ready-to-reheat meals during an 8-year period by amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) analysis. A total of 319 L. monocytogenes isolates were recovered from raw materials (n=18), the environment (n=77), equipment (n=193), and products (n=31), and 18 different AFLP types were identified, five of which were repeatedly found to be persistent types. The three compartments (I to III) of the plant showed markedly different contamination statuses. Compartment I, which produced cooked meals, was heavily contaminated with three persistent AFLP types. AFLP type A1 dominated, and it comprised 93% of the isolates of the compartment. Compartment II, which produced uncooked chilled food, was contaminated with four persistent and five nonpersistent AFLP types. The equipment of compartment III, which produced cooked ready-to-reheat meals, was free of contamination. In compartments that produced cooked meals, the cleaning routines, product types, and lack of compartmentalization seemed to predispose production lines to persistent contamination. The most contaminated lines harbored L. monocytogenes in coolers, conveyors, and packing machines. Good compartmentalization limited the flow of L. monocytogenes into the postheat -treatment area and prevented the undesired movement of equipment and personnel, thus protecting the production lines from contamination. In compartment II, grated cheese was shown to cause product contamination. Therefore, special attention should be paid to continuous quality control of raw ingredients when uncooked ready-to-eat foods are produced. In compartment II, reconstruction of the production line resulted in reduced prevalence rates of L. monocytogenes and elimination of two persistent AFLP types

Identification of Clostridium species and DNA fingerprinting of Clostridium perfringens by amplified fragment length polymorphism analysis

An amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) method was applied to 129 strains representing 24 different Clostridium species, with special emphasis on pathogenic clostridia of medical or veterinary interest, to assess the potential of AFLP for identification of clostridia. In addition, the ability of the same AFLP protocol to type clostridia at the strain level was assessed by focusing on Clostridium perfringens strains. All strains were typeable by AFLP, so the method seemed to overcome the problem of extracellular DNase production. AFLP differentiated all Clostridium species tested, except for Clostridium ramosum and Clostridium limosum, which clustered together with a 45% similarity level. Other Clostridium species were divided into species-specific clusters or occupied separate positions. Wide genetic diversity was observed among Clostridium botulinum strains, which were divided into seven species-specific clusters. The same AFLP protocol was also suitable for typing C. perfringens at the strain level. A total of 29 different AFLP types were identified for 37 strains of C. perfringens; strains initially originating from the same isolate showed identical fingerprinting patterns and were distinguished from unrelated strains. AFLP proved to be a highly reproducible, easy-to-perform, and relatively fast method which enables high throughput of samples and can serve in the generation of identification libraries. These results indicate that the AFLP method provides a promising tool for the identification and characterization of Clostridium species

Prudent antimicrobial use is essential to prevent the emergence of antimicrobial resistance in Yersinia enterocolitica 4/O:3 strains in pigs

Yersinia enterocolitica is a psychrotrophic zoonotic foodborne pathogen. Pigs are considered the main reservoir of Y. enterocolitica 4/O:3, which is the most commonly isolated bioserotype in many European countries. Consuming pork contaminated with Y. enterocolitica can be a health threat, and antimicrobial-resistant strains may complicate the treatment of the most severe forms of yersiniosis. We analyzed the antimicrobial resistance of 1,016 pathogenic porcine Y. enterocolitica 4/O:3 strains originating from Belgium, Estonia, Finland, Germany, Italy, Latvia, Russia, Spain, and the United Kingdom. Based on available reports, we also compared antimicrobial sales for food production animals in these countries, excluding Russia. Antimicrobial resistance profiles were determined using a broth microdilution method with VetMIC plates for 13 antimicrobial agents: ampicillin, cefotaxime, ceftiofur (CTF), chloramphenicol (CHL), ciprofloxacin, florfenicol, gentamicin, kanamycin, nalidixic acid (NAL), streptomycin (STR), sulfamethoxazole (SME), tetracycline (TET), and trimethoprim (TMP). The antimicrobial resistance of Y. enterocolitica 4/O:3 strains varied widely between the countries. Strains resistant to antimicrobial agents other than ampicillin were rare in Estonia, Finland, Latvia, and Russia, with prevalence of 0.7, 0.4, 0, and 8.3%, respectively. The highest prevalence of antimicrobial resistance was found in Spanish and Italian strains, with 98 and 61% of the strains being resistant to at least two antimicrobial agents, respectively. Resistance to at least four antimicrobial agents was found in 34% of Spanish, 19% of Italian, and 7.1% of English strains. Antimicrobial resistance was more common in countries where the total sales of antimicrobials for food production animals are high and orally administered medications are common. Our results indicate that antimicrobials should be used responsibly to treat infections, and parenteral medications should be preferred to orally administered mass medications.Peer reviewe