Drought impacts and related risk management by smallholder farmers in developing countries: evidence from Awash River Basin, Ethiopia

Climate risk studies have largely neglected household coping and adaptation strategies. In this paper we analyze drought impacts, drought risk management, and resulting drought resilience in Awash River Basin of Ethiopia based on socio-economic data collected from 43 randomly selected Peasant Associations. We find that severe drought periods have led to a significant depression of crop yields and to widespread death of livestock in the past. Drought periods have drastically increased the proportion of food insecure households and lengthened the duration of food insecurity in the area. Since, with climate change, drought periods are predicted to become more frequent in this region in the future, the problem of food insecurity is likely to become even more severe. Ex-ante adaptation strategies are widely practised in Awash River Basin and include the storage of crop residues as fodder for livestock, the rearing of drought tolerant livestock, mixed cropping, the use of short duration crop varieties, and the adoption of soil and water conservation practices. Ex-post coping strategies utilized to manage the consequences of drought include the sale of assets and the reliance on consumption loans and support offered by informal networks. Therefore, suitable policies are urgently needed to strengthen farmers’ capacity to adapt to and cope with drought. Training farmers in the production and conservation of livestock fodder as well as in soil and water conservation practices appear to be key policy options relevant in the area. Moreover, improving farmers’ access to climate related information, especially drought forecasts, could improve the timely adoption of effective adaptation measures.drought, drought risk management, Ethiopia, Environmental Economics and Policy, Production Economics, O13, Q12,

Agricultural Commercialization in the Uplands of Northern Vietnam: How to Achieve Both Poverty Reduction and Environmental Sustainability Goals?

Income growth and urbanization in developing countries have enlarged markets for highvalue agricultural commodities. However, there are concerns that lacking access to physical, financial, and human capital, as well as infrastructure and institutions limit the ability of the poor to participate in and benefit from such commercial agricultural activities. There may further be a trade-off between wealth enhancing effects of intensive commercial agriculture and adverse long-term effects on farmers’ livelihoods due to natural resource degradation. This study provides empirical evidence on these crucial issues and derives related policy recommendations using the example of Vietnam. Here, economic growth has boosted the demand for animal products and, consequently, commercial maize production for animal feed purposes especially in erosion-prone upland areas. Using data from mountainous Yen Chau district in north-western Vietnam, the main objective of this paper is to investigate the degree of farmers’ engagement in commercial maize production and the determinants of their land allocation decision, whereby a special focus is laid on the poorest farm households. We find that maize covers most of the sloping uplands and generates the lion’s share of farmers’ cash income. The poorest farmers are particularly specialized in commercial maize production, but they are highly dependent on relatively disadvantageous input supply and marketing arrangements offered by maize traders. Although farmers in all wealth groups are well aware of soil erosion, effective soil conservation measures are rarely practiced. Due to the trade-off between short-term wealth enhancing effects of maize production and lacking sustainability we propose a two-pronged policy approach that comprises (1) measures aimed at enhancing the short-term profitability of maize production for the poorest farmers while reducing the associated market related risks and (2) measures aimed at enhancing both the economic and ecological sustainability of land use in the long run through the promotion of economically attractive soil conservation options that may gradually evolve into a more diversified land use system.Einkommenswachstum und zunehmende Verstädterung in Entwicklungsländern haben zu einer Ausweitung von Märkten für hochwertige Agrarprodukte geführt. Es gibt jedoch Bedenken, dass die Armen in ihrer Möglichkeit an derartigen kommerziellen landwirtschaftlichen Aktivitäten teilzunehmen und von ihnen zu profitieren durch mangelnden Zugang zu physischem, finanziellen und Humankapital, sowie Infrastruktur und Institutionen beschränkt sind. Zudem mögen die wohlfahrtssteigernden Effekte intensiver kommerzieller Landwirtschaft mit durch Degradierung natürlicher Ressourcen hervorgerufenen negativen Langzeitwirkungen auf die Existenzgrundlage von Kleinbauern konfligieren. Die vorliegende Studie liefert empirische Erkenntnisse zu diesen wichtigen Fragen am Beispiel von Vietnam und leitet entsprechende Politikempfehlungen ab. In Vietnam beflügelt Wirtschaftswachstum die Nachfrage nach Tierprodukten und damit den 2 kommerziellen Maisanbau zu Futterzwecken vor allem in erosionsanfälligen Bergregionen. Das Hauptziel dieses Aufsatzes ist es anhand von Daten aus dem bergigen Distrikt Yen Chau in Nordwestvietnam zu untersuchen, in welchem Umfang die dortigen Bauern kommerziellen Maisanbau betreiben und welche Faktoren sie bei ihrer Landallokationsentscheidung beeinflussen, wobei spezielles Augenmerk auf die ärmsten bäuerlichen Haushalte gelegt wird. Unsere Ergebnisse zeigen, dass Mais auf einem Großteil der Hanglagen angebaut wird und den Löwenanteil der bäuerlichen Bareinkommen generiert. Die ärmsten Bauern sind in besonderem Maße auf den kommerziellen Maisanbau spezialisiert, sie hängen jedoch stark von relativ nachteiligen Vereinbarungen mit Maishändlern für die Bereitstellung von Inputs und der Vermarktung ab. Obwohl Bauern aller Einkommensschichten sich der auftretenden Bodenerosion sehr wohl bewusst sind, werden effektive Bodenschutzmaßnahmen kaum praktiziert. Aufgrund des Zielkonfliktes zwischen dem kurzfristigen, wohlfahrtssteigernden Effekt der Maisproduktion und ihrer mangelnden Nachhaltigkeit plädieren wir für einen zweigleisigen Politikansatz. Dieser umfasst (1) Maßnahmen, die die kurzfristige Rentabilität des Maisanbaus für die ärmsten Bauern erhöhen, während gleichzeitig Marktrisiken vermindert werden, und (2) Maßnahmen, die die ökonomische und ökologische Nachhaltigkeit der Landnutzung langfristig durch die Förderung wirtschaftlich attraktiver Bodenschutzoptionen erhöhen, die sich schrittweise zu einem diversifizierteren Landnutzungssystem weiterentwickeln könnten.Agricultural commercialization, maize cultivation, sustainability, Tobit regression, Vietnam, Landwirtschaftliche Kommerzialisierung, Maisanbau, Nachhaltigkeit, Tobit-Regression, Vietnam, Agribusiness,

Determinants of Farmers' Resilience towards ENSO-Related Drought: Evidence from Central Sulawesi, Indonesia

Crop production in the tropics is subject to considerable climate variability caused by the El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) phenomenon. In Southeast Asia, El Niño causes comparatively dry conditions leading to substantial declines of crop yields. In concert with global warming, the frequency and severity of the phenomenon are likely to increase during the 21st century. Little is known about the impact of ENSO-related drought on the welfare of farm households in developing countries. This paper seeks to contribute to closing this knowledge gap with a case study from Central Sulawesi, Indonesia. Its objective is to measure household resilience towards drought periods and identify its influencing factors to deduce policy implications. Using consumption-related indicators, we develop an index measuring household drought resilience; we then identify its determinants applying an asset-based livelihood framework encompassing the household-specific level of technical efficiency in agricultural production. Most of the drought-affected farm households are forced to substantially reduce expenditures for basic necessities, whereby the drastic cuts in food expenditures are particularly alarming. Households' drought resilience is strengthened by the possession of liquid assets, access to credit, and a high level of technical efficiency in crop production. The results suggest a number of policy recommendations, namely the improvement of the farmers' access to ENSO forecasts, the provision of formal credit at moderate interest rates to facilitate consumption smoothing, and the intensification of agricultural extension efforts in view of low levels of technical efficiency found in agricultural production.ENSO, drought resilience, risk management, technical efficiency, Indonesia, Farm Management, Q54, Q12,

Drought impacts and related risk management by smallholder farmers in developing countries : evidence from Awash River Basin, Ethiopia

Climate risk studies have largely neglected household coping and adaptation strategies. In this paper we analyze drought impacts, drought risk management, and resulting drought resilience in Awash River Basin of Ethiopia based on socio-economic data collected from 43 randomly selected Peasant Associations. We find that severe drought periods have led to a significant depression of crop yields and to widespread death of livestock in the past. Drought periods have drastically increased the proportion of food insecure households and lengthened the duration of food insecurity in the area. Since, with climate change, drought periods are predicted to become more frequent in this region in the future, the problem of food insecurity is likely to become even more severe. Ex-ante adaptation strategies are widely practised in Awash River Basin and include the storage of crop residues as fodder for livestock, the rearing of drought tolerant livestock, mixed cropping, the use of short duration crop varieties, and the adoption of soil and water conservation practices. Ex-post coping strategies utilized to manage the consequences of drought include the sale of assets and the reliance on consumption loans and support offered by informal networks. Therefore, suitable policies are urgently needed to strengthen farmers? capacity to adapt to and cope with drought. Training farmers in the production and conservation of livestock fodder as well as in soil and water conservation practices appear to be key policy options relevant in the area. Moreover, improving farmers? access to climate related information, especially drought forecasts, could improve the timely adoption of effective adaptation measures

Maize boom in the uplands of Northern Vietnam : economic importance and environmental implications

In Vietnam, the demand for meat products has grown dramatically due to rapid economic growth and urbanisation and is expected to further increase in the future. Being the primary source of feed for the country?s livestock and poultry industry, maize has become the second most important crop after rice. While this maize boom has the potential to reduce rural poverty, it promotes the expansion of agricultural cultivation into fragile agro-ecological zones, often leading to deforestation and soil degradation, especially in the uplands. Using empirical evidence from mountainous Yen Chau district in north-western Vietnam, the objective of this paper is to investigate the current economic importance and environmental implications of maize cultivation. Furthermore, particular emphasis is placed on the identification of factors influencing farmers? decision how much area to allocate to maize in order to derive research and policy recommendations. Maize is the dominant crop in Yen Chau, covering most of the uplands and generating the lion?s share of households? cash income. Although farmers are well aware of soil erosion on their maize plots, effective soil conservation measures are rarely practiced. Maize is attractive to farmers from all social strata, notably the poor, and through marketing arrangements with traders its cultivation is also not constrained by poor infrastructural conditions. Access to low-interest credit should be enhanced to mitigate farmers? risk of being caught in a poverty trap when maize revenues plummet due to pests, diseases, price fluctuations, or adverse weather conditions. To address the problem of soil degradation in the maize-dominated uplands, research is needed on soil conservation options that are economically more attractive than those promoted thus far

Intra-household effects of ENSO related drought in lowland farm households in Central Sulawesi, Indonesia

137 p. Georg-August-University of Göttingen, GermanyThe principal aim of the present study is to define the intra-household impact of El Niño 2002 on time and food allocation. Moreover, to determine how the roles of men and women were affected. This study focused at the intra – household level, since the effect of El Niño 2002 on the household was previously determined by Keil (2004). Thereby, the study contributes to achieve a more detail understanding of El Niño impact in the year 2002. The realization of the study was within the focus of the IMPENSO project (Impact of El Niño-Southern Oscillation). The study is composed of two parts. The first part refers to the quantitative study, and the second part to the qualitative study. As Keil (2004) concluded, the highest impact of El Niño 2002 was localized in three lowland villages in Central Sulawesi, Indonesia. Therefore, the quantitative study was based on a random sample of 96 household, used by Keil (2004). Meanwhile, the qualitative study was based on 3 different research methods. The number of respondents of each one corresponds to: 18 in-depth interviews, 3 focus groups and 9 key informants’ semi-structure interviews. Therefore, by applying qualitative and quantitative methods it was approached the same phenomenon from different analysis. Thus, the results and explanations obtained from the analyses, led us to stronger conclusions than if it would be applied a single method.In order to analyse the data, the study was sub-divided in two parts. Firstly, the quantitative analysis consists of the time allocation analysis and the food allocation analysis. Secondly, the qualitative analysis was divided into in-depth interviews analysis, focus groups analysis and key informants’ analysis. Both parts derive and conclude about the same issues. These issues are the differentiated effect of El Niño 2002 on men and women, on the age of the household members and on the wealth strata of the household members. In order to identify the possible impact of El Niño in the year 2002, it was compared to the non-El Niño year nearest to the year when the present research was done. The activities and food selected were based on the results from Keil (2004). Thereby, the analyses are concentrated on the most affected activities. These activities were the rice production, temporary employment, maize production, cocoa production and other activities. These ‘other activities’ comprised several activities, which were not as important as the above mentioned, regarding the amount of time allocated and the quantity of household members engaged. However, these did have importance due to they represent the diversity of activities in the research area. Furthermore, they represent the differentiated effect of El Niño 2002 on time allocation.The food allocation analysis consists of the change on consumption of rice, maize, rice mixed with rice, cassava, vegetables, banana, fish, chicken and beef. The effect of El Niño 2002 on food allocation depended on the kind of food. Therefore, there were foods consumed in more quantity during El Niño 2002 than 2004, such as rice mixed with maize and cassava. On the other hand, other foods were consumed in less quantity during El Niño 2002 than 2004, such as fish and rice. Furthermore, the qualitative research found that women were in charge of allocating the food within the household. Therefore, the wife gave priority on food allocation to other members to consume the staple foods like rice. For instance, in some situations during El Niño 2002, the wife reduced the amount consumed of some foods like rice, chicken or beef. On its place she increased the amount of other foods like banana (instead of rice), more quantity of vegetables. Thereby, that fact caused during El Niño 2002 a detrimental food allocation towards women.The time allocation impact of El Niño 2002 depended on the kind of activity. Therefore, in temporary employment, maize production, construction worker, fishing and the collection of rattan more hours have been worked during El Niño 2002 than in 2004. On the other hand, crops as rice, banana and chilli production perceived a reduction of hours worked during El Niño 2002. Furthermore, El Niño 2002 reduced the time that women were outside the house. Additionally, a minimum change in men’s participation in the daily tasks has been observed. On the other hand, men’s principal obligation sometimes implied the mobilization to other places, a fact that was accepted in the society; meanwhile women had less spatial mobility. Moreover, new and more diverse activities were fulfilled during El Niño 2002. Furthermore, the effect of El Niño 2002 pushed for the incremental participation of women in self-employment outside the agriculture. Therefore future local decisions should take into account the new alternatives activities developed since El Niño 2002. In which the participation of women has been incremented. Moreover, there were differences between villages regarding the effect of El Niño 2002 on the intra-household allocation of time and food. The analysed effects of El Niño 2002 on time and food allocation among the household members are strongly recommended to be included in future decisions in development projects within the research area. This has the aim to focus the attention on the household members that were most affected, especially on the activities and foods that the present study addresses. Furthermore, special attention must be given to women, the poorest and poor household member

Land titling policy and soil conservation in the uplands of Northern Vietnam

In Vietnam, a quasi private property regime has been established in 1993 with the issuance of exchangeable and mortgageable long term land use right certificates. Using primary qualitative and quantitative data collected in a mountainous district of Northern Vietnam, this paper investigates the role of the land policy in the adoption of soil conservation technologies by farmers. This issue is of crucial importance in the region where population growth and growing market demands have induced farmers to intensify agricultural production. While poverty has been reduced, environmental problems such as soil erosion, landslides, and declining soil fertility have become more severe over the past years. Among the abundant literature on the impact of property rights and formal land titles in developing countries, only a few studies have focused on the adoption of soil conservation technologies: an important element in sustainable development strategies of fragile agro-ecological areas confronted with increasing population densities. Our findings suggest that soil conservation technologies are perceived as being economically unattractive; therefore, most upland farmers continue to practice the prevailing erosion-prone cultivation system. Focusing on agroforestry as one major soil conservation option, we estimate household and plot level econometric models to empirically assess the determinants of adoption. We find that the possession of a formal land title influences adoption, but that the threat of land re-allocations in villages discourages adoption by creating uncertainty and tenure insecurity. We conclude that more efforts are needed from decision-makers to promote and support the adoption of conservation practices and to clarify objectives of the land policy in order to secure land tenure and foster sustainable development in fragile areas

Landslides in mountainous regions of Northern Vietnam : causes, protection strategies and the assessment of economic losses

Landslides are a severe problem during the rainy season in many mountainous regions in Asia where forests have been cut so that mountain slopes are destabilized. In this study we analyze the extent and causes of landslides in a mountainous area in Northern Vietnam as viewed from the perspective of the concerned population. We also scrutinize the ideas of these people regarding suitable landslide protection measures and their willingness to contribute to the practical implementation of these measures. It shows that nearly all people living in this area feel highly concerned about the frequent landslide events and that they support the idea of government programs to mitigate the danger of future landslides. We measure the utility they expect from such a landslide protection program, i. e. the social value of such a program, in terms of their willingness to contribute personally to its implementation. Since budgets are tight in these rural areas where subsistence farming still prevails we also analyze the possibilities to measure these expected utility gains in terms of people's willingness to contribute working time instead of money to the proposed landslide protection program. The prospect of employing such an alternative means of contribution is, however, seen rather critical

Conservation Agriculture Benefits Indian Farmers, but Technology Targeting Needed for Greater Impacts

Rice and wheat production in the intensive, irrigated farming systems of the Indo-Gangetic Plains (IGP) is associated with significant negative environmental and health externalities. Conservation Agriculture (CA) has the potential to curb some of these externalities while enhancing farm income. However, farmer adoption of CA remains modest in the Indian IGP. The present study focuses on the constraints to adopting the major CA component, zero tillage (ZT). We examine whether ZT wheat is feasible for smallholders and the potential of technology targeting to realize faster and wider diffusion. Econometric models and machine learning algorithms were used to analyze remote sensing data and farm household data collected from the Indian states of Punjab and Bihar, two contrasting agrarian economies of the IGP. While farmer adoption was low among smallholders (owning <2 ha of land), the on-farm effects of ZT on variable cost reduction and yield and profit enhancement for smallholders are comparable to large farmers. We estimate the economic potential of technology targeting using an equilibrium displacement model. In the relatively developed state of Punjab, technology targeting based on landholding size does not appear to add substantive economic benefits. In Bihar, a less prosperous state with a dominance of smallholders in the population, technology targeting could markedly enhance economic surplus and reduce rural poverty