Mycotoxins in equine feedstuffs

Mykotoxikos är ett samlingsbegrepp för sjukdomstillstånd orsakat av förgiftning med mykotoxin, ett gift producerat av mögelsvampar. Det finns flera olika potentiellt patogena mögelsvampar som kan kontaminera grödor under tillväxt, skörd och lagring och därmed utgöra en hälsorisk för djur som äter dessa grödor. Det finns dock en skillnad i känslighet för toxinerna mellan olika djurarter och hur mottagliga de är för olika toxiner och därmed vilka symtom som uppstår. Denna litteraturöversikt har som syfte att undersöka olika mykotoxiners hälsoeffekt hos hästar, de olika mykotoxinernas prevalens i hästfoder och hur hästar skulle kunna skyddas mot de eventuellt negativa effekterna som toxinet har. Litteraturöversikten har visat ett brett fokus i genomförda studier. Studierna skiljer sig åt i vilka toxiner, djurslag och fodervarianter man undersökt. Det är även en stor geografisk spridning på studierna. Ett av de vanligaste förekommande toxinerna är deoxynivalenol (DON). Detta toxin verkar dock ha en låg effekt på hästars hälsotillstånd där de flesta studierna framförallt rapporterar aptitförlust som symtom. I kombination med toxinet zearalenon (ZEN) har man dock sett att DON kan hämma hästars perifera mononukleära celler in vitro. Zearalenon (ZEN) ensamt har visats minska motiliteten och påskynda akrosomreaktionen hos hingstars sperma vilket har en fertilitetssänkande effekt. Andra mer allvarliga symtom har visats uppstå vid förgiftning med lolitrem B och ergovaline. Dessa båda toxiner har visats ge neurologiska symtom efter fyra till nio dagar. Även roquefortin C har visats ha en negativ inverkan på nervceller. Mer diskreta symtom har uppstått hos hästar som ätit ergot som innehåller alkaloider. Där rapporteras symtom som svullna ben, svullen öronspottkörtel, stelhet, hälta och vattnig avföring. En av studierna har rapporterat dödsfall orsakat av förgiftning med fumonisin B1 (FUM). Studien visar på ett eskalerande händelseförlopp som börjar med ökad salivering och svettning, apati och ataxi. Detta följs av förlorad djup känsel, dilaterade pupiller och död inom 24 timmar från de första symtomen. Fodertillsatser såsom mineralföreningar, natriumbentonit och glukomannan-polymer har visats kunna binda till vissa mykotoxiner och har därmed en teoretisk möjlighet att förhindra mykotoxikos. Däremot finns få studier som undersöker den faktiska effekten in vivo. Flera studier visar att toxiner ofta finns i låga doser i alla foder. Där varierar vilken variant och halt av toxin. De är dock inte synliga för blotta ögat om det inte finns en kraftig mögeltillväxt vilket kan göra mykotoxikos svårare att förebygga. Fler studier skulle behöva genomföras för att få en mer enhetlig bild av prevalens av toxiner och för att på ett mer effektivt sätt kunna förhindra effekten av mykotoxiner hos hästar.Mycotoxicosis is a group of diseases that can affect our domestic animals. It is symptoms caused by ingestion of a toxin produced by mould. There are several different species of mould that have the ability to produce toxin. These moulds can infect plants during growth, harvest and storage. This is why mycotoxins can be a health issue to animals through their feed. There is a variation in the susceptibility between different species determining the effect of the toxin and what symptoms that may appear. The aim of this review was to determine the health effects of mycotoxins in horses as well as the prevalence of different toxins in horsefeed and how one can prevent their negative effects. Many studies in this review have been performed with a narrow geographic area but are spread all around the world. This gives poor data if you are interested in a specific country, such as Sweden. There are also differences in what animals are included, what type of feed is analyzed and what toxin the study has been focused on. Of all the toxins reported in the studies the most common is Deoxynivalenol (DON). This toxin alone seems to have a small importance when it comes to effects on health in horses. A common symptom of deoxynivalenol is inappetence. Although in combination with Zearalenone (ZEN) it has been proved to have a negative effect on equine peripheral mononuclear blood cells in vitro. On its own ZEN can also reduce the motility of horse sperm and lower the fertility of stallions. Other toxins have been reported to have greater negative impact on horses. Lolitrem B and Ergovaline have proved to cause neurologic symptoms in horses after only four to nine days of ingestion. The toxin Roquefortin C has also been proved to have a negative effect on neurologic cells. Ergot and its toxic substance alkaloids has been reported to cause more subtle symptoms such as swelling of the limbs and the parotic glands, stiffness, lameness and diarrhea. A report on Fumonisin B1 (FUM) shows an escalation in symptoms caused by the toxin. It starts with increase in salivation and sweating, depression and ataxia. These are followed by even more severe symptoms such as loss of proprioception, dilated pupils and death within 24 hours of onset. Several different additives to feed has been tested for their protective abilities against mycotoxicosis. Among these are different mineral compounds, sodiumbentonite and a glucomannan-polymer. They have been proven to bind different mycotoxins but have not been thoroughly tested in vivo. To these additives there is another dilemma. It is hard to determine when they should be used since the toxins are seldom analyzed and not clearly connected to visible moulds in the feed. Many reports state that the mycotoxins are prevalent in lower doses in almost all feeds and feedstuffs. In summary, there is a need to further investigate the prevalence of mycotoxins in horsefeed and pastures to give a more reliable view and to more effectively prevent negative health effects in horses

Seroepidemiology of selected transboundary animal diseases in goats in Zambia

Transboundary pathogens of goats present significant constraints to the livelihoods of millions of farmers in countries such as Zambia. Consequently, this study aimed to investigate the seroprevalence of Mycoplasma capricolum subsp. capripneumoniae (Mccp), foot and mouth disease virus (FMDV), Brucella spp., Crimean Congo haemorrhagic fever virus (CCHFV), and Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV) in Zambian goats. Another aim was to identify associations between seroprevalence and different predictor variables, such as trade and border proximity. From September to October 2019, 962 serum samples were collected from goats in seven Zambian districts, four of which have an international border while the remaining three do not. A questionnaire survey was conducted with each household, focusing on trade routines, management strategies and herd disease history. Animal-level seroprevalence adjusted for herd-level clustering was 8.2 % (95 % confidence interval [CI] 7.5-9.0) for Mccp, 12.9% (95% CI 12.0-13.7) for FMDV, 13.0 % (95% CI 12.1-13.9) for Brucella spp., 3.3 % (95% CI 2.8-3.7) for CCHFV, and 0.4 % (95 % CI 0.3-0.7) for RVFV. The association between herd-level seroprevalence and border proximity and trade appeared negligible, with the exception of selling goats at least twice a year which was identified as a potential risk factor for Brucella spp. (OR 4.1, 95 % CI 1.1-16.0, p = 0.040). In addition, a positive association between herd-level seroprevalence of FMDV and a herd size of 21 goats or more (OR 3.3, 95 % CI 1.0-11.1, p = 0.049) was detected. Also, positive associations between animal-level seroprevalence of Brucella spp. and increasing age (OR 7.7, 95 % CI 1.5-40.7, p = 0.016), and CCHFV and keeping pigs in the household (OR 2.7, 95 % CI 1.0-7.1, p = 0.044), were found. For FMDV (OR 3.8, 95 % CI 1.4-10.9, p = 0.011) and Brucella spp. (OR 4.5, 95 % CI 1.2-17.3, p = 0.031) on the other hand, animal-level seroprevalence was significantly higher in households without pigs. To the best of the authors' knowledge, this is the first study to describe the presence of antibodies for CCPP and CCHF in the Zambian goat population. While the association between seroprevalence and trade and border proximity generally appeared negligible, it is recommended that their influence is further evaluated in future studies, preferably through in-depth longitudinal studies incorporating impacts of different biosecurity measures and trade variations, linked to for example seasonality and trade peaks

Zoonotic diseases in Zambian goat herds

Small ruminants play an important role in low-income countries due to their ability to bring food and income to their owners. Loss of these animals due to disease can therefore affect a family’s ability to support their livelihood and the children’s opportunities to go to school so that they can improve their future. The aim of this study was to investigate the prevalence of three zoonotic diseases among goats that can have an impact on both animal health and production and human health: brucellosis, Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever (CCHF) and Rift Valley fever (RVF). Another aim was to find associations between the seroprevalence of the disease and management routines to see if there were any specific risk factors to contracting the diseases in the herds. Serum samples were collected from goats in three districts in the Central and Southern provinces of Zambia, more specifically Monze and Mazabuka in the Southern province, and Chibombo district in Central province. In each district, ten villages were randomly selected and in each village four households with at least four goats were visited for sampling. The farmers in each household were interviewed using a questionnaire with questions regarding management routines and details about the animals. After sampling the serum was analysed for antibodies to the selected diseases using commercially available specific ELISA kits. To find associations between the seroprevalence and management routines, Fisher’s exact test was used. No individuals were found to have RVF antibodies. The prevalence of CCHF was found to be 5.2% and seroprevalence of brucellosis was 2.7%. Association was found between being CCHF seropositive and having contact with other cattle herds equal to or more often than every six months. No other associations could be found between seropositive animals and management routines

Seroepidemiology of selected transboundary animal diseases in goats in Zambia

Transboundary pathogens of goats present significant constraints to the livelihoods of millions of farmers in countries such as Zambia. Consequently, this study aimed to investigate the seroprevalence of Mycoplasma capricolum subsp. capripneumoniae (Mccp), foot and mouth disease virus (FMDV), Brucella spp., Crimean Congo haemorrhagic fever virus (CCHFV), and Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV) in Zambian goats. Another aim was to identify associations between seroprevalence and different predictor variables, such as trade and border proximity. From September to October 2019, 962 serum samples were collected from goats in seven Zambian districts, four of which have an international border while the remaining three do not. A questionnaire survey was conducted with each household, focusing on trade routines, management strategies and herd disease history. Animal-level seroprevalence adjusted for herd-level clustering was 8.2 % (95 % confidence interval [CI] 7.5-9.0) for Mccp, 12.9% (95% CI 12.0-13.7) for FMDV, 13.0 % (95% CI 12.1-13.9) for Brucella spp., 3.3 % (95% CI 2.8-3.7) for CCHFV, and 0.4 % (95 % CI 0.3-0.7) for RVFV. The association between herd-level seroprevalence and border proximity and trade appeared negligible, with the exception of selling goats at least twice a year which was identified as a potential risk factor for Brucella spp. (OR 4.1, 95 % CI 1.1-16.0, p = 0.040). In addition, a positive association between herd-level seroprevalence of FMDV and a herd size of 21 goats or more (OR 3.3, 95 % CI 1.0-11.1, p = 0.049) was detected. Also, positive associations between animal-level seroprevalence of Brucella spp. and increasing age (OR 7.7, 95 % CI 1.5-40.7, p = 0.016), and CCHFV and keeping pigs in the household (OR 2.7, 95 % CI 1.0-7.1, p = 0.044), were found. For FMDV (OR 3.8, 95 % CI 1.4-10.9, p = 0.011) and Brucella spp. (OR 4.5, 95 % CI 1.2-17.3, p = 0.031) on the other hand, animal-level seroprevalence was significantly higher in households without pigs. To the best of the authors' knowledge, this is the first study to describe the presence of antibodies for CCPP and CCHF in the Zambian goat population. While the association between seroprevalence and trade and border proximity generally appeared negligible, it is recommended that their influence is further evaluated in future studies, preferably through in-depth longitudinal studies incorporating impacts of different biosecurity measures and trade variations, linked to for example seasonality and trade peaks