Can the production of wild forest foods be sustained in timber concessions? Logging and the availability of edible caterpillars hosted by sapelli (Entandrophragma cylindricum) and tali (Erythrophleum suaveolens) trees in the Democratic Republic of Congo

Sapelli (Entandrophragma cylindricum) and tali (Erythrophleum suaveolens) are among the most important timber species harvested from Congo Basin forests. They also host edible caterpillars, Imbrasia oyemensis and Cirina forda, respectively, which are important to the nutrition and income of rural and urban populations. This study evaluated the density of these tree species within a 10 km radius around each of 4 villages and in the 2012 annual cutting areas of two timber concessions in the region of Kisangani (DRC). Sapelli and tali trees ≥20 cm dbh and their stumps were identified and measured on 21 five ha plots around each village and 20 five ha plots on each concession. Around villages and on concessions, sapelli trees occurred at densities of 0.048 ± 0.008 harvestable trees (≥80 cm dbh) ha −1 and 0.135 ± 0.019 precommercial trees ha −1. Harvestable tali trees (≥60 cm dbh) were seven times more abundant at 0.347 ± 0.032 ha −1, while pre- commercial tali trees occurred at densities of 0.329 ± 0.033 trees ha −1. Between 25% and 40% of the har- vestable sapelli trees had been logged as compared to < 3% of the harvestable tali trees. Production per tree, derived from another study, was extrapolated to estimate caterpillar yields on a half circle of 15,700 ha within 10 km of villages, using these estimates of tree densities. Depending on the village, yields were estimated as 11.6–34.5 Mg year −1 of I. oyemensis from sapelli trees, and 65.8–80.9 Mg year −1 of C. forda from tali trees, an average of 0.74–2.2 kg ha −1 year and 4.2–5.2 kg ha −1 year, fresh weight, respectively (0.23–0.68 kg ha −1 year −1 and 1.3–1.6 kg ha −1 year −1, dry weight, respectively). Harvestable trees yielded more caterpillars, providing most of the C. forda caterpillars. However, because harvestable sapelli trees oc- curred at low densities, the bulk of I. oyemensis caterpillar production would be hosted on precommercial trees. Logging practices that reject poorly formed or hollow trees and guidelines that call for high minimum diameter limits and retention of seed trees or prohibit logging on slopes or riparian zones, safeguard edible caterpillar production. Multiple resource management for multiple stakeholders would require more deliberate planning and management approaches based on negotiations with local communities and approaches like setting aside collection zones or collection trees that would be protected from logging

Poverty and poor education are key determinants of high household food insecurity among populations adjoining forest concessions in the Congo Basin

Background: The trees and non-timber forest products (NTFPs) of the Congo Basin play a key role in alleviating food insecurity among millions of people around the world. Although many studies have been conducted both nationally and regionally on issues of food insecurity in the Congo Basin, little is known on the effects of timber exploitation on household food insecurity statues of forest dependent communities in this region. This study focused on the determination of the principal indicators of household food security status of populations living around six selected forest concessions in the Congo Basin. Method: We randomly surveyed 724 households in thirty-four communities living in six popular forest concessions around the Congo Basin. Food consumption pattern data was collected using a validated food-frequency questionnaire in 2012. Household Food Insecurity Access Prevalence (HFIAP) was assessed using the HFIAP indicator and households were categorized into four levels of household food insecurity status as follows: Food secure (HFIAS = 0); mildly food insecure (HFIAS 1–8); moderately food insecure (HFIAS 9–13); and severely food insecure (HFIAS 14–27). Results: The majority of the households interviewed were headed by women (73.1 %, 76.6 %, and 58.6 % for Cameroon, DRC and Gabon respectively), most of them married (84.6 %, 100 %, 57.6 % for Cameroon, DRC and Gabon respectively) with an average age range of 30–49 years. Most of the household members were engaged in farming and/or illegal logging as the main revenue generating activities. Results of global household food insecurity categorized 63.8 % of households in Cameroon as fully food secure and 36 % as food insecure. In the DRC (92.9 %) and Gabon (92.7 %), almost all the survey households were categorized as either moderately or severely food insecure; clearly elucidating the existence of severe insufficiency in the quantity and quality of food meant for human nutrition in these areas. The means of household food insecurity scores for the DRC (17.40 ± 4.15) and Gabon (14.9 ± 5.87) were significantly higher when compared to the average score for Cameroon ((7.55 ± 6.62) at p < 0.0001. This literally means that many of the households especially in DRC and Gabon face enormous difficulties in obtaining an adequate dietary energy supply. Gender (female), educational level (illiterate), and age (young) were positively correlated to food insecurity levels. Conclusion: Our results revealed that, despite the potential contribution of the Congo Basin forests, through enhancing access to different forms of quality foods such as bush meat, wild foods, and medicine, not forgetting the provision of agricultural land, local construction material, and income generation resources, the prevalence of food insecurity among the population adjoining forest concessions in the region is severe. This prevalence is alarming around forest concessions of the DRC and Gabon and in one concession of Cameroon. Given that poverty and poor education were positively correlated to household food insecurity, they were considered the paramount determinants of household food insecurity in this region

Trees for Food and Timber: are community interests in conflict with those of timber concessions in the Congo Basin?

Much of the Congo Basin is managed for timber from dozens of species. More than 60% also produce non-timber products, including foods. For five multiple use tree species in Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) and Gabon (Entandrophragma cylindricum, Baillonella toxisperma, Erythrophleum suaveloens, Dacryodes buettneri and Gambeya lacourtiana), we studied gathering and consumption by communities, edible caterpillars hosted, the densities of trees around villages and in concessions and the impacts of timber harvesting . We also studied the consumption of forest foods and the nutritional values of fruits and seeds of various tree species. Villagers walked up to six km during day trips to collect fruits or caterpillars, gathering from concessions if the village was within or near it. When foods were gathered from trees smaller than the cutting diameter (which varied by country and species), there was no conflict with timber harvesting. However, the volume of edible caterpillars hosted increased with diameter and harvestable trees were the most productive. Caterpillars, tree fruits and seeds provide fats, vitamins and minerals that complement agricultural foods. Densities of B. toxisperma, valued for its edible oil, were higher around villages than in concessions. The proportion of commercial trees harvested for timber varied from less than 3% to more than 50%, depending on the species. Different species had different geneflow distances, meaning viable regeneration could be expected with residual adults at different maximum distances. E. cylindricum had more effective dispersal than E. suaveolens. The production of timber and nontimber products can be sustained from the same concessions, for different stakeholders, with appropriate practices and arrangements

Beyond timber: balancing demands for tree resources between concessionaires and villagers

Extensive areas of the Congo Basin forest are allocated to timber concessionaires. These forests also harbour and support village populations, including indigenous Baka people, who depend on forest foods obtained directly from trees (fruits, oils and caterpillars). Most food-producing tree species are harvested by concessionaires for timber. We documented the availability and abundance of three food tree species around four villages and in two neighboring timber concessions in Cameroon. Data was used to determine the importance of timber concessions as sources of food for local people to provide a foundation for governance arrangements that consider local needs for foods from timber trees. Discussions with concessionaires revealed that some of them have voluntarily refrained from extracting timber species of interest to villagers for their nontimber products. This is either to avoid conflict with villagers, or because regulations have been promulgated to safeguard these resources. The interplay between internal village dynamics, regulations and their implementation by forest guards, and the actions of timber concessions create a complex arena for addressing rights to forest resources. This paper provides information on the accessibility and availability of multiple use timber species as a foundation for negotiations and governance arrangements between concessionaires and local communities

The yield of edible caterpillars Imbrasia oyemensis and Cirina forda from timber trees logged on concessions in the Democratic Republic of the Congo: A contribution to managing tropical forests for multiple resources

Local people in rural areas of the tropics depend on forests for a range of food resources, including protein-rich edible caterpillars, among them Imbrasia oyemensis and Cirina forda, which are important for nutrition and income. Sapelli (Entandrophragma cylindricum), the African mahogany, and Tali (Erythrophleum suaveolens) are food sources for these caterpillars; they are also among the most important timber species harvested from Congo Basin forests. This study quantified the yield of caterpillars from harvestable and precommercial sizes of trees of these two timber species to better understand the impact of logging on the availability of edible caterpillars to local people, and the implications for managing both timber and non-timber resources in industrial timber concessions. Caterpillars were collected and weighed beneath 50 Sapelli trees 23–190 cm DBH and 170 Tali trees 22–174 cm DBH on two timber concessions, from mid-August to mid-September, over two years. Caterpillars were found to descend from the trees during 5 days each year, and quantities varied between years. In both sample years, yields were significantly higher from harvestable trees larger than the minimum cutting diameter than from precommercial trees. Each harvestable Sapelli tree (≥ 80 cm DBH), yielded an average of 11.3 kg fresh weight of I. oyemensis year-1; smaller, precommercial trees yielded 5.4 kg tree−1year−1. Each harvestable Tali tree (≥ 60 cm DBH) yielded an average of 9.1 kg of C. forda year−1, as compared to 5.7 kg tree−1year−1 from precommercial trees. This means that industrial timber harvesting, which removes trees larger than the minimum cutting diameter, has a disproportionate effect on the availability of caterpillars. However, trees below the minimum cutting diameter also yield caterpillars, and may occur at higher densities. Guidelines that limit harvesting on steep slopes or near watercourses, or that call for retaining large trees as seed sources, also safeguard caterpillar yields. However, multiple resource management should consider proactive measures, which could include zoning areas near villages as sources of edible caterpillars, and protecting those trees from logging

A need for continued collecting of avian voucher specimens in Africa: Why blood is not enough

[No abstract available]Not

Building a framework towards climate-smart agriculture in the Yangambi landscape, Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC)

This paper aims to produce a framework for climate-smart agriculture (CSA) in the Yangambi landscape, Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). This would enable the authors to identify agricultural practices, assess vulnerability to climate change, identify options for improving agricultural systems from a climate change mitigation and adaptation perspective and finally provide climate-smart agricultural options. The study used household survey methods of data collection. The data were collected using a structured questionnaire survey by interviewing 250 farm households, subdivided using three axes of the Yangambi landscape. Fisher’s exact test was used to determine relationships between two or more variables. Results of the survey revealed that the vast majority (98%) of respondents perceived changes in temperature, rainfall and weather patterns. Reduction of crop yields and the emergence of new weed species and new crop pests are the main impacts on agricultural activities. Although 87.6% of respondents have no means of adaptation and resilience, some of them use crops rotation, fallow practice, fertilizers and bio-pesticides. A framework for CSA is proposed for the Yangambi landscape. Policies and strategies to promote CSA in the study area should take into account local farmers' perceptions of climate change and consider first the adequacy of CSA practices for the specific conditions of the target area before its promotion. This study is thus useful for many REDD+ initiatives that are currently being promoted in DRC and particularly in the Tshopo Province. This study is one of the first studies to focus on CSA in the Yangambi landscape, DRC. It assists the use of agriculture as a response to reducing deforestation while at the same time lowering agriculture’s carbon footprint and promoting a resilient and more productive farming system