The evolution of Kenya’s animal health surveillance system and its potential for efficient detection of zoonoses

IntroductionAnimal health surveillance systems in Kenya have undergone significant changes and faced various challenges throughout the years.MethodsIn this article, we present a comprehensive overview of the Kenya animal health surveillance system (1944 to 2024), based on a review of archived documents, a scoping literature review, and an examination of past surveillance assessments and evaluation reports.ResultsThe review of archived documents revealed key historical events that have shaped the surveillance system. These include the establishment of the Directorate of Veterinary Services in 1895, advancements in livestock farming, the implementation of mandatory disease control interventions in 1944, the growth of veterinary services from a section to a ministry in 1954, the disruption caused by the Mau Mau insurrection from 1952 to 1954, which led to the temporary halt of agriculture in certain regions until 1955, the transition of veterinary clinical services from public to private, and the progressive privatization plan for veterinary services starting in 1976. Additionally, we highlight the development of electronic surveillance from 2003 to 2024. The scoping literature review, assessments and evaluation reports uncovered several strengths and weaknesses of the surveillance system. Among the strengths are a robust legislative framework, the adoption of technology in surveillance practices, the existence of a formal intersectoral coordination platform, the implementation of syndromic, sentinel, and community-based surveillance methods, and the presence of a feedback mechanism. On the other hand, the system’s weaknesses include the inadequate implementation of strategies and enforcement of laws, the lack of standard case definitions for priority diseases, underutilization of laboratory services, the absence of formal mechanisms for data sharing across sectors, insufficient resources for surveillance and response, limited integration of surveillance and laboratory systems, inadequate involvement of private actors and communities in disease surveillance, and the absence of a direct supervisory role between the national and county veterinary services.Discussion and recommendationsTo establish an effective early warning system, we propose the integration of surveillance systems and the establishment of formal data sharing mechanisms. Furthermore, we recommend enhancing technological advancements and adopting artificial intelligence in surveillance practices, as well as implementing risk-based surveillance to optimize the allocation of surveillance resources

The evolution of Kenya’s animal health surveillance system and its potential for efficient detection of zoonoses

Introduction: Animal health surveillance systems in Kenya have undergone significant changes and faced various challenges throughout the years.Methods: In this article, we present a comprehensive overview of the Kenya animal health surveillance system (1944 to 2024), based on a review of archived documents, a scoping literature review, and an examination of past surveillance assessments and evaluation reports.Results: The review of archived documents revealed key historical events that have shaped the surveillance system. These include the establishment of the Directorate of Veterinary Services in 1895, advancements in livestock farming, the implementation of mandatory disease control interventions in 1944, the growth of veterinary services from a section to a ministry in 1954, the disruption caused by the Mau Mau insurrection from 1952 to 1954, which led to the temporary halt of agriculture in certain regions until 1955, the transition of veterinary clinical services from public to private, and the progressive privatization plan for veterinary services starting in 1976. Additionally, we highlight the development of electronic surveillance from 2003 to 2024. The scoping literature review, assessments and evaluation reports uncovered several strengths and weaknesses of the surveillance system. Among the strengths are a robust legislative framework, the adoption of technology in surveillance practices, the existence of a formal intersectoral coordination platform, the implementation of syndromic, sentinel, and community-based surveillance methods, and the presence of a feedback mechanism. On the other hand, the system’s weaknesses include the inadequate implementation of strategies and enforcement of laws, the lack of standard case definitions for priority diseases, underutilization of laboratory services, the absence of formal mechanisms for data sharing across sectors, insufficient resources for surveillance and response, limited integration of surveillance and laboratory systems, inadequate involvement of private actors and communities in disease surveillance, and the absence of a direct supervisory role between the national and county veterinary services.Discussion and recommendations: To establish an effective early warning system, we propose the integration of surveillance systems and the establishment of formal data sharing mechanisms. Furthermore, we recommend enhancing technological advancements and adopting artificial intelligence in surveillance practices, as well as implementing risk-based surveillance to optimize the allocation of surveillance resources

Serological evidence of single and mixed infections of Rift Valley fever virus, Brucella spp. and Coxiella burnetii in dromedary camels in Kenya

Camels are increasingly becoming the livestock of choice for pastoralists reeling from effects of climate change in semi-arid and arid parts of Kenya. As the population of camels rises, better understanding of their role in the epidemiology of zoonotic diseases in Kenya is a public health priority. Rift Valley fever (RVF), brucellosis and Q fever are three of the top priority diseases in the country but the involvement of camels in the transmission dynamics of these diseases is poorly understood. We analyzed 120 camel serum samples from northern Kenya to establish seropositivity rates of the three pathogens and to characterize the infecting Brucella species using molecular assays. We found seropositivity of 24.2% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 16.5-31.8%) for Brucella, 20.8% (95% CI: 13.6-28.1%) and 14.2% (95% CI: 7.9-20.4%) for Coxiella burnetii and Rift valley fever virus respectively. We found 27.5% (95% CI: 19.5-35.5%) of the animals were seropositive for at least one pathogen and 13.3% (95% CI: 7.2-19.4%) were seropositive for at least two pathogens. B. melitensis was the only Brucella spp. detected. The high sero-positivity rates are indicative of the endemicity of these pathogens among camel populations and the possible role the species has in the epidemiology of zoonotic diseases. Considering the strong association between human infection and contact with livestock for most zoonotic infections in Kenya, there is immediate need to conduct further research to determine the role of camels in transmission of these zoonoses to other livestock species and humans. This information will be useful for designing more effective surveillance systems and intervention measures

Randomized controlled field trial to assess the immunogenicity and safety of rift valley fever clone 13 vaccine in livestock

BACKGROUND:Although livestock vaccination is effective in preventing Rift Valley fever (RVF) epidemics, there are concerns about safety and effectiveness of the only commercially available RVF Smithburn vaccine. We conducted a randomized controlled field trial to evaluate the immunogenicity and safety of the new RVF Clone 13 vaccine, recently registered in South Africa. METHODS:In a blinded randomized controlled field trial, 404 animals (85 cattle, 168 sheep, and 151 goats) in three farms in Kenya were divided into three groups. Group A included males and non-pregnant females that were randomized and assigned to two groups; one vaccinated with RVF Clone 13 and the other given placebo. Groups B included animals in 1st half of pregnancy, and group C animals in 2nd half of pregnancy, which were also randomized and either vaccinated and given placebo. Animals were monitored for one year and virus antibodies titers assessed on days 14, 28, 56, 183 and 365. RESULTS:In vaccinated goats (N = 72), 72% developed anti-RVF virus IgM antibodies and 97% neutralizing IgG antibodies. In vaccinated sheep (N = 77), 84% developed IgM and 91% neutralizing IgG antibodies. Vaccinated cattle (N = 42) did not develop IgM antibodies but 67% developed neutralizing IgG antibodies. At day 14 post-vaccination, the odds of being seropositive for IgG in the vaccine group was 3.6 (95% CI, 1.5 - 9.2) in cattle, 90.0 (95% CI, 25.1 - 579.2) in goats, and 40.0 (95% CI, 16.5 - 110.5) in sheep. Abortion was observed in one vaccinated goat but histopathologic analysis did not indicate RVF virus infection. There was no evidence of teratogenicity in vaccinated or placebo animals. CONCLUSIONS:The results suggest RVF Clone 13 vaccine is safe to use and has high (>90%) immunogenicity in sheep and goats but moderate (> 65%) immunogenicity in cattle

Sero-prevalence and risk factors for human brucellosis in Marsabit county, Kenya (2014)

Introduction: brucellosis is among the world's most widespread zoonotic diseases which is recognized as a public health concern in both developed and developing countries. It is endemic in Kenya's pastoral communities where it is associated with significant economic losses due to decreased animal productivity and high burden in humans. The objectives of this study were: i) To estimate the sero-prevalence and determine the risk factors of brucellosis in humans ii) To assess the knowledge attitude and practices (KAP) of a pastoral community in relation to brucellosis transmission and control. Methods: cross-sectional survey was conducted within the pastoral ecosystem of Marsabit County. A total of 227 households were randomly selected. Blood samples were aseptically drawn from the selected humans and tested for Brucella immunoglobulin G (IgG) antibodies. Questionnaires were administered via personal interviews to the head of each study household to assess risk factors of transmission. Univariate and subsequently multivariate logistic regression analysis were performed examine the factors independently associated with Brucella seropositivity after adjustment for the effects of other explanatory variables. Results: the individual Brucella sero-prevalence was estimated at 44% (332/755) and that of the household at (73.13%). Although the majority (85.5%) of the respondents had heard of brucellosis, only a few could identify the disease by clinical signs in both humans and animals. The majority (88.5%) engaged in practices that were likely to enhance Brucella transmission and thus spread. Being a male herder increased the risk of infection by almost twice (OR=1.8136) compared to females. People who were either students, farmers, skilled or non-skilled off farm workers were less likely (OR=0.3053, 0.9038, 0.7749 and 0.2010 respectively) to be infected with brucellosis than housewives. Households where milk was boiled before consumption were less likely (OR=0.404) to have a higher rate of brucellosis infection than those who consumed raw milk. Households that used milk from their own animals were much less likely (OR= 0.1754) to have infection than those that use milk from other sources. Households that kept sheep and those that had members who assisted animals during delivery were more likely to have higher rates of brucellosis than those who never kept sheep and those who never assisted in delivery respectively. Conclusion: brucellosis is endemic in Marsabit County despite the low levels of knowledge and good control practices by the community. Consumption of raw milk and close contact with animal, particularly sheep are the highest risk factors There is a need for implementation of effective prevention strategies and advocacy practices like targeted livestock vaccinations and public education

Administrative Law -- Power of Board of Education to Abolish Fraternities

<p>Left panel (bottom) shows proportion of cattle with IgG antibodies following vaccination 14 to 366 days post-vaccination. The right panel (bottom) shows proportion of cattle that produced anti-RVF IgM antibodies over the 1 year period. The top panel on the left and right are the placebo-treated animals.</p

Schematic summary of the study design showing the species, the numbers and the physiological status of the study animals.

<p>The study was carried out in three sites (Kabete, Kiboko and Ngong)—all government farms with similar farm management conditions. We used 404 animals in the study, including 85 cattle, 168 sheep, and 151 goats. Of these, 194 were vaccinated with RVF Clone 13 vaccine whereas 210 were injected with placebo. The study animals were divided into 3 groups; Group A included non-pregnant animals, Group B included animal in 1^st half of the pregnancy, and Group C animals in 2^nd half of pregnancy.</p

Proportion of goats positive for anti-RVF antibodies following vaccination with RVF Clone 13 vaccine.

<p>Left panel (bottom) proportion of the goats with IgG antibodies following vaccination within 14 to 366 days post-vaccination. The right panel (bottom) shows proportion of goats that produced anti-RVF IgM antibodies over the 1 year period. The top panel on the left and right are the placebo-treated animals.</p

Odds ratios for sero-conversion by day 14 for vaccinated and placebo groups of cattle, sheep, and goats.

<p>The ratio represents the odds of sero-conversion in the vaccinated group compared to the placebo (reference) group.</p><p>Odds ratios for sero-conversion by day 14 for vaccinated and placebo groups of cattle, sheep, and goats.</p