Molecular weaponry:diverse effectors delivered by the Type VI secretion system

The Type VI secretion system is a widespread bacterial nanomachine, used to deliver toxins directly into eukaryotic or prokaryotic target cells. These secreted toxins, or effectors, act on diverse cellular targets, and their action provides the attacking bacterial cell with a significant fitness advantage, either against rival bacteria or eukaryotic host organisms. In this review, we discuss the delivery of diverse effectors by the Type VI secretion system, the modes of action of the so‐called ‘anti‐bacterial’ and ‘anti‐eukaryotic’ effectors, the mechanism of self‐resistance against anti‐bacterial effectors and the evolutionary implications of horizontal transfer of Type VI secretion system‐associated toxins. Whilst it is likely that many more effectors remain to be identified, it is already clear that toxins delivered by this secretion system represent efficient weapons against both bacteria and eukaryotes

VgrG and PAAR Proteins Define Distinct Versions of a Functional Type VI Secretion System

The Type VI secretion system (T6SS) is widespread among bacterial pathogens and acts as an effective weapon against competitor bacteria and eukaryotic hosts by delivering toxic effector proteins directly into target cells. The T6SS utilises a bacteriophage-like contractile machinery to expel a puncturing device based on a tube of Hcp topped with a VgrG spike, which can be extended by a final tip from a PAAR domain-containing protein. Effector proteins are believed to be delivered by specifically associating with particular Hcp, VgrG or PAAR proteins, either covalently ('specialised') or non-covalently ('cargo' effectors). Here we used the T6SS of the opportunistic pathogen Serratia marcescens, together with integratecd genetic, proteomic and biochemical approaches, to elucidate the role of specific VgrG and PAAR homologues in T6SS function and effector specificity, revealing new aspects and unexpected subtleties in effector delivery by the T6SS. We identified effectors, both cargo and specialised, absolutely dependent on a particular VgrG for delivery to target cells, and discovered that other cargo effectors can show a preference for a particular VgrG. The presence of at least one PAAR protein was found to be essential for T6SS function, consistent with designation as a 'core' T6SS component. We showed that specific VgrG-PAAR combinations are required to assemble a functional T6SS and that the three distinct VgrG-PAAR assemblies in S. marcescens exhibit distinct effector specificity and efficiency. Unexpectedly, we discovered that two different PAAR-containing Rhs proteins can functionally pair with the same VgrG protein. Showing that accessory EagR proteins are involved in these interactions, native VgrG-Rhs-EagR complexes were isolated and specific interactions between EagR and cognate Rhs proteins identified. This study defines an essential yet flexible role for PAAR proteins in the T6SS and highlights the existence of distinct versions of the machinery with differential effector specificity and efficiency of target cell delivery

Protein methyltransferase 7 deficiency in Leishmania major increases neutrophil associated pathology in murine model

Leishmania major is the main causative agent of cutaneous leishmaniasis in the Old World. In Leishmania parasites, the lack of transcriptional control is mostly compensated by post-transcriptional mechanisms. Methylation of arginine is a conserved post-translational modification executed by Protein Arginine Methyltransferase (PRMTs). The genome from L. major encodes five PRMT homologs, including the cytosolic protein associated with several RNA-binding proteins, LmjPRMT7. It has been previously reported that LmjPRMT7 could impact parasite infectivity. In addition, a more recent work has clearly shown the importance of LmjPRMT7 in RNA-binding capacity and protein stability of methylation targets, demonstrating the role of this enzyme as an important epigenetic regulator of mRNA metabolism. In this study, we unveil the impact of PRMT7-mediated methylation on parasite development and virulence. Our data reveals that higher levels of LmjPRMT7 can impair parasite pathogenicity, and that deletion of this enzyme rescues the pathogenic phenotype of an attenuated strain of L. major. Interestingly, lesion formation caused by LmjPRMT7 knockout parasites is associated with an exacerbated inflammatory reaction in the tissue correlated with an excessive neutrophil recruitment. Moreover, the absence of LmjPRMT7 also impairs parasite development within the sand fly vector Phlebotomus duboscqi. Finally, a transcriptome analysis shed light onto possible genes affected by depletion of this enzyme. Taken together, this study highlights how post-transcriptional regulation can affect different aspects of the parasite biology

Produção e caracterização de IgY contra rLipL32 de Leptospira interrogans

Leptospirosis is a zoonosis caused by bacteria of the Leptospira genus. In recent years, efforts to identify immunogenic components of leptospires have resulted in the characterization of several outer membrane lipoproteins that are expressed during infection. Previously, our group had produced polyclonal IgY antibodies against whole-cell leptospires strain Fiocruz L1-130, which were used in different forms of capture ELISAs. In this study we produced and characterized IgY antibodies against LipL32 in recombinant form (rLipL32), the most abundant lipoprotein in the proteome of pathogenic leptospires, in order to use they in diagnostic assays and prophylaxis of leptospirosis. For this, two 22-week-old hens were immunized on day 0 with rLipL32 and oil adjuvant by intramuscular route. Three booster immunizations on days 14, 28 and 42 were held, and the eggs were collected daily from day 45. The yolks were processed and the antibodies purified with polyethylene glycol, and monitored by SDS-PAGE. Specificity of purified antibodies was assessed through indirect ELISA and Western blot (WB) using both rLipL32 and whole-cell Fiocruz L1-130. After standardization of the first batch of IgY, antibodies were conjugated with horseradish peroxidase and fluorescein (FITC). In addition, we conducted a passive immunoprotection assay in hamster model, using homologous and heterologous challenge. SDS-PAGE confirmed the successful purification of IgY and a batch with a concentration of 13μg.μL-1 was stored at -20ºC until use. Both IgY and IgY conjugated with horseradish peroxidase recognized the recombinant and native protein in ELISA and WB. In this study we produced and characterized successfully IgY against rLipL32. Although these antibodies have not been tested with clinical samples from humans or animals, they have antigen detecting potential for use in the diagnosis of leptospirosis.A leptospirose é uma zoonose causada por bactérias do gênero Leptospira. Nos últimos anos, esforços para a identificação de componentes imunogênicos nas leptospiras resultaram na caracterização de várias lipoproteínas de membrana externa que são expressas durante a infecção. Anteriormente, nosso grupo havia produzido IgY contra Leptospira interrogans cepa Fiocruz L1-130 inteira, a qual foi usada em diferentes formatos de ELISA de captura. No presente estudo, objetivamos produzir e caracterizar anticorpos IgY contra a proteína LipL32 na forma recombinante (rLipL32), a lipoproteína mais abundante no proteoma das leptospiras patogênicas, com intuito de utilizá-los posteriormente, no diagnóstico e na imunoprofilaxia da leptospirose. Para isso, duas galinhas com 22 semanas de idade foram imunizadas no dia 0 com rLipL32 e adjuvante oleoso, através da via intramuscular. Três outras imunizações foram realizadas nos dias 14, 28 e 42 e os ovos coletados diariamente a partir do dia 45. Os anticorpos foram obitidos através do processamento das gemas, purificados com polietilenoglicol e monitorados por SDS-PAGE. A especificidade dos anticorpos foi avaliada através de ELISA indireto e Western blot (WB), ambos utilizando rLipL32 e Fiocruz L1-130 inteira. Após a padronização do primeiro lote de IgY, os anticorpos foram conjugados com peroxidase e fluoresceína (FITC), e avaliados em um ensaio de imunização passiva em hamsters, com desafio homólogo e heterólogo. O SDS-PAGE confirmou o sucesso de purificação, e um lote de IgY com a concentração de 13μg.μL-1 foi estocado a -20ºC até o uso. A IgY pura e conjugada com peroxidase reagiram com as proteínas recombinante e nativa no ELISA e no WB. Nesse estudo, produzimos e caracterizamos com sucesso IgY contra rLipL32. Embora esses anticorpos não tenham sido testados com amostras clínicas de humanos e animais, eles possuem potencial para compor ensaios que visem a detecção do antígeno no diagnóstico da leptospirose

Intraspecies competition in <i>Serratia marcescens </i>is mediated by type VI-secreted Rhs effectors and a conserved effector-associated accessory protein

The type VI secretion system (T6SS) is widespread in Gram-negative bacteria and can deliver toxic effector proteins into eukaryotic cells or competitor bacteria. Antibacterial T6SSs are increasingly recognized as key mediators of interbacterial competition and may contribute to the outcome of many polymicrobial infections. Multiple antibacterial effectors can be delivered by these systems, with diverse activities against target cells and distinct modes of secretion. Polymorphic toxins containing Rhs repeat domains represent a recently identified and as-yet poorly characterized class of T6SS-dependent effectors. Previous work had revealed that the potent antibacterial T6SS of the opportunistic pathogen Serratia marcescens promotes intraspecies as well as interspecies competition (S. L. Murdoch, K. Trunk, G. English, M. J. Fritsch, E. Pourkarimi, and S. J. Coulthurst, J Bacteriol 193:6057–6069, 2011, http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/JB.05671-11). In this study, two new Rhs family antibacterial effectors delivered by this T6SS have been identified. One of these was shown to act as a DNase toxin, while the other contains a novel, cytoplasmic-acting toxin domain. Importantly, using S. marcescens, it has been demonstrated for the first time that Rhs proteins, rather than other T6SS-secreted effectors, can be the primary determinant of intraspecies competition. Furthermore, a new family of accessory proteins associated with T6SS effectors has been identified, exemplified by S. marcescens EagR1, which is specifically required for deployment of its associated Rhs effector. Together, these findings provide new insight into how bacteria can use the T6SS to deploy Rhs-family effectors and mediate different types of interbacterial interactions. IMPORTANCE Infectious diseases caused by bacterial pathogens represent a continuing threat to health and economic prosperity. To counter this threat, we must understand how such organisms survive and prosper. The type VI secretion system is a weapon that many pathogens deploy to compete against rival bacterial cells by injecting multiple antibacterial toxins into them. The ability to compete is vital considering that bacteria generally live in mixed communities. We aimed to identify new toxins and understand their deployment and role in interbacterial competition. We describe two new type VI secretion system-delivered toxins of the Rhs class, demonstrate that this class can play a primary role in competition between closely related bacteria, and identify a new accessory factor needed for their delivery

Quantitative Determination of Antibacterial Activity During Bacterial Coculture

Antibacterial activity assays are an important tool in the assessment of the ability of one bacterium to kill or inhibit the growth of another, for example, during the study of the Type VI secretion system (T6SS) and the antibacterial toxins it secretes. The method we describe here can detect the ability of a bacterial strain to kill or inhibit other bacterial cells in a contact-dependent manner when cocultured on an agar surface. It is particularly useful since it enumerates the recovery of viable target cells and thus enables quantification of the antibacterial activity. We provide a detailed description of how to measure the T6SS-dependent antibacterial activity of a bacterium such as Serratia marcescens against a competitor prokaryotic organism, Escherichia coli, and describe possible variations in the method to allow adaptation to other attacker and target organisms.</p

Proteomic identification of novel secreted anti-bacterial toxins of the <em>Serratia marcescens</em> Type VI secretion system

It has recently become apparent that the Type VI secretion system (T6SS) is a complex macromolecular machine used by many bacterial species to inject effector proteins into eukaryotic or bacterial cells, with significant implications for virulence and interbacterial competition. “Antibacterial” T6SSs, such as the one elaborated by the opportunistic human pathogen, Serratia marcescens, confer on the secreting bacterium the ability to rapidly and efficiently kill rival bacteria. Identification of secreted substrates of the T6SS is critical to understanding its role and ability to kill other cells, but only a limited number of effectors have been reported so far. Here we report the successful use of label-free quantitative mass spectrometry to identify at least eleven substrates of the S. marcescens T6SS, including four novel effector proteins which are distinct from other T6SS-secreted proteins reported to date. These new effectors were confirmed as antibacterial toxins and self-protecting immunity proteins able to neutralize their cognate toxins were identified. The global secretomic study also unexpectedly revealed that protein phosphorylation-based post-translational regulation of the S. marcescens T6SS differs from that of the paradigm, H1-T6SS of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Combined phosphoproteomic and genetic analyses demonstrated that conserved PpkA-dependent threonine phosphorylation of the T6SS structural component Fha is required for T6SS activation in S. marcescens and that the phosphatase PppA can reverse this modification. However, the signal and mechanism of PpkA activation is distinct from that observed previously and does not appear to require cell–cell contact. Hence this study has not only demonstrated that new and species-specific portfolios of antibacterial effectors are secreted by the T6SS, but also shown for the first time that PpkA-dependent post-translational regulation of the T6SS is tailored to fit the needs of different bacterial species

Rhs1 and Rhs2 depend exclusively on VgrG2 for their delivery into target cells.

<p>(A-B) Recovery of a target strain lacking <i>rhsI1</i> (<i>S</i>. <i>marcescens</i> Db10 Δ<i>tssH</i>Δ<i>rhsI1</i>), part A, or lacking <i>rhsI2</i> (<i>S</i>. <i>marcescens</i> Db10 Δ<i>rhs2</i>Δ<i>rhsI2</i>), part B, following co-culture with wild type (WT) or mutant (Δ<i>tssE</i>, Δ<i>rhs1</i>, Δ<i>rhs2</i>, Δ<i>vgrG1</i>, Δ<i>vgrG2</i> and Δ<i>vgrG1</i>Δ<i>vgrG2</i>) strains of Db10 as attacker, as indicated. Points show mean ± SEM (n = 4).</p

VgrG1 and VgrG2 require specific PAAR proteins to assemble a functional T6SS.

<p>(A) Immunoblot detection of Hcp1 in cellular and secreted fractions of wild type (WT) or mutant (Δ<i>tssE</i>, Δ<i>paar1</i>, Δ<i>rhs1</i>Δ<i>rhs2</i>, Δ<i>paar</i>Δ<i>rhs1</i>Δ<i>rhs2</i>, Δ<i>vgrG1</i>Δ<i>paar1</i>, Δ<i>vgrG2</i>Δ<i>rhs1</i>Δ<i>rhs2</i>, Δ<i>vgrG1</i>Δ<i>rhs1</i>Δ<i>rhs2</i> and Δ<i>vgrG2</i>Δ<i>paar1</i>) strains of <i>S</i>. <i>marcescens</i> Db10. (B-C) Recovery of target organisms <i>P</i>. <i>fluorescens</i> 55, part B, or <i>S</i>. <i>marcescens</i> Db10 Δ<i>ssp4</i>Δ<i>sip4</i>, part C, following co-culture with wild type or mutant strains of Db10 as attacker (mutants as part A, with also Δ<i>vgrG1</i>, Δ<i>vgrG2</i>, Δ<i>vgrG1</i>Δ<i>rhs1</i> and Δ<i>vgrG1</i>Δ<i>rhs2</i>). Points show mean +/- SEM (n = 4). (D) Hcp1 secretion by wild type or mutant strains carrying either the vector control plasmid (+VC) or plasmids directing expression of Paar1 (+Paar1, pSC734), Rhs1 and RhsI1 (+Rhs1, pSC791), Rhs2 and RhsI2 (+Rhs2, pSC788), or VgrG1 (+VgrG1, pSC622) <i>in trans</i>. The empty vector control was pSUPROM for Paar1, Rhs2 and VgrG1; for Rhs1 the empty vector was pBAD18-Kn and expression was induced with 0.0002% l-arabinose. Abbreviations: Δ3x<i>paar</i>, Δ<i>paar</i>Δ<i>rhs1</i>Δ<i>rhs2</i>; Δ2x<i>rhs</i>, Δ<i>rhs1</i>Δ<i>rhs2</i> mutant (E) Recovery of target strain <i>S</i>. <i>marcescens</i> Db10 Δ<i>0927–0929</i> following co-culture with wild type (WT) or mutant (Δ<i>tssE</i>, Δ<i>slp</i>, Δ<i>vgrG2</i>, Δ<i>rhs1</i>, Δ<i>rhs2</i> and Δ<i>rhs1</i>Δ<i>rhs2</i>) strains of Db10.</p