Lipoprotein-Associated Phospholipase A2 Activity as Potential Biomarker of Vascular Dementia

A wealth of evidence suggests that Lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A2 (Lp-PLA2) plays a relevant role in atherogenesis and inflammation, which in turn are associated with the risk of developing dementia. The aim of this study was to evaluate whether serum Lp-PLA2 activity might be an early and/or late biomarker for different forms of dementia. Serum Lp-PLA2 activity was assessed in older patients with mild cognitive impairment (MCI, n = 166; median clinical follow-up = 29 months), Late-Onset Alzheimer's disease (LOAD, n = 176), vascular dementia (VAD, n = 43), dementia characterized by an overlap between LOAD and VAD (AD-VAD MIXED dementia) (n = 136), other dementia subtypes (n = 45), and cognitively normal controls (n = 151). We found a significant trend towards higher levels of Lp-PLA2 activity in VAD compared with the other groups (ANOVA, p = 0.028). Similarly, Lp-PLA2 activity was greater in MCI converting to VAD compared with those that did not or did convert to the other types of dementia (ANOVA, p = 0.011). After adjusting for potential confounders, high levels of Lp-PLA2 activity were associated with the diagnosis of VAD (O.R. = 2.38, 95% C.I. = 1.06-5.10), but not with other types of dementia. Our data suggest that increased serum Lp-PLA2 activity may represent a potential biomarker for the diagnosis of VAD

Paraoxonase-1 and Early-Life Environmental Exposures

Acute and chronic exposures to widely used organophosphorus (OP) insecticides are common. Children's detoxification mechanisms are not well developed until several years after birth. The increased cases of neurodevelopmental disorders in children, together with their increased susceptibility to OP neurotoxicity cannot be explained by genetic factors alone but could be related to gene-environment interactions. Paraoxonase-1 (PON1) is an enzyme that can detoxify OPs but its catalytic efficiency for hydrolysis to certain OPs is modulated by the Q192R polymorphism. Studies with animals have provided important information on the role of PON1 in protecting against gestational and postnatal toxicity to OPs. The 'PON1''Q192' allele is less efficient in hydrolyzing certain OPs than the 'PON1''R192'allele. Maternal PON1 status (PON1 activity levels, the most important measurement, and functional Q192R phenotype) modulates the detrimental effects of exposure to the OP chlorpyrifos oxon on fetal brain gene expression and biomarkers of exposure. Epidemiologic studies suggest that children from mothers with lower PON1 status who were in contact with OPs during pregnancy tend to show smaller head circumference at birth and adverse effects in cognitive function during childhood. Infants and children are vulnerable to OP toxicity. The detrimental consequences of OPs on neurodevelopment can lead to future generations with permanent cognitive problems and susceptibility to develop neurodegenerative diseases. Improved methods using mass spectrometry to monitor OP-adducted biomarker proteins are needed and will be extremely helpful in early life biomonitoring, while measurement of PON1 status as a biomarker of susceptibility will help identify mothers and children highly sensitive to OPs. The use of adductomics instead of enzymatic activity assays for biomonitoring OP exposures have proved to provide several advantages, including the use of dried blood spots, which would facilitate monitoring newborn babies and children

Methodological constraints in interpreting serum paraoxonase-1 activity measurements: an example from a study in HIV-infected patients

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>Paraoxonase-1 (PON1) is an antioxidant enzyme that attenuates the production of the monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) <it>in vitro</it>. Although oxidation and inflammation are closely related processes, the association between PON1 and MCP-1 has not been completely characterised due, probably, to that the current use of synthetic substrates for PON1 measurement limits the interpretation of the data. In the present study, we explored the relationships between the circulating levels of PON1 and MCP-1 in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients in relation to the multifunctional capabilities of PON1.</p> <p>Methods</p> <p>We measured selected variables in 227 patients and in a control group of 409 participants. Serum PON1 esterase and lactonase activities were measured as the rates of hydrolysis of paraoxon and of 5-(thiobutyl)-butyrolactone, respectively. Oxidised LDL and MCP-1 concentrations were determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. High-density lipoproteins cholesterol, apolipoprotein A-I, and C-reactive protein concentrations were measured by standard automated methods.</p> <p>Results</p> <p>There were significant relationships between PON1 activity and several indices of oxidation and inflammation in control subjects and in infected patients. However, these relationships varied not only with disease status but also on the type of substrate used for PON1 measurement.</p> <p>Conclusion</p> <p>The present study is a cautionary tale highlighting that results of clinical studies on PON1 may vary depending on the methods used as well as the disease studied. Until more specific methods using physiologically-akin substrates are developed for PON1 measurement, we suggest the simultaneous employment of at least two different substrates in order to improve the reliability of the results obtained.</p

Decreased paraoxonase-1 activity is associated with alterations of high-density lipoprotein particles in chronic liver impairment

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>Paraoxonase-1 (PON1), a lactonase synthesized by the liver, circulates in blood bound to high-density lipoproteins (HDL). This enzyme is thought to degrade oxidized phospholipids and play an important role in the organism's antioxidant and anti-inflammatory system. Chronic liver diseases are characterized by decreased serum PON1 activity. The aim of the present study was to investigate the compositional changes in HDL that could influence PON1 activity in liver impairment.</p> <p>Methods</p> <p>The study was performed in samples from five patients with advanced liver cirrhosis and with preserved renal function, chosen on the basis of having low serum PON1 activity and high serum PON1 concentration. As a control group, we accessed five healthy volunteers from among our hospital staff. Lipid and protein compositional analysis of lipoprotein particles were done by high-performance liquid chromatography, gel electrophoresis, and Western-Blot.</p> <p>Results</p> <p>HDL particles from cirrhotic patients had an increased phospholipid content that was inversely correlated to PON1 activity. The HDL particles contained high levels of PON1 that corresponded, in part, to an immunoreactive protein of high molecular weight (55 kDa) not present in control subjects. This protein was identified as glycosylated PON1 and was also present in biopsies from patients with steatosis and from rats with CCl₄-induced hepatic impairment. These changes were associated with an increased plasma concentration of markers of oxidative stress, inflammation and fibrogenesis.</p> <p>Conclusion</p> <p>Abnormalities in the composition of lipids and proteins of HDL particles, including PON1 glycosylation, are associated with the decrease in serum PON1 activity in patients with liver disease. These alterations may adversely affect the protective role of HDL against oxidative stress and inflammation in these patients.</p

Ancient convergent losses of Paraoxonase 1 yield potential risks for modern marine mammals

Mammals diversified by colonizing drastically different environments, with each transition yielding numerous molecular changes, including losses of protein function. Though not initially deleterious, these losses could subsequently carry deleterious pleiotropic consequences. We have used phylogenetic methods to identify convergent functional losses across independent marine mammal lineages. In one extreme case, Paraoxonase 1 (PON1) accrued lesions in all marine lineages, while remaining intact in all terrestrial mammals. These lesions coincide with PON1 enzymatic activity loss in marine species’ blood plasma. This convergent loss is likely explained by parallel shifts in marine ancestors’ lipid metabolism and/or bloodstream oxidative environment affecting PON1’s role in fatty acid oxidation. PON1 loss also eliminates marine mammals’ main defense against neurotoxicity from specific man-made organophosphorus compounds, implying potential risks in modern environment

Ancient convergent losses of Paraoxonase 1 yield potential risks for modern marine mammals

Mammals diversified by colonizing drastically different environments, with each transition yielding numerous molecular changes, including losses of protein function. Though not initially deleterious, these losses could subsequently carry deleterious pleiotropic consequences. We have used phylogenetic methods to identify convergent functional losses across independent marine mammal lineages. In one extreme case, Paraoxonase 1 (PON1) accrued lesions in all marine lineages, while remaining intact in all terrestrial mammals. These lesions coincide with PON1 enzymatic activity loss in marine species’ blood plasma. This convergent loss is likely explained by parallel shifts in marine ancestors’ lipid metabolism and/or bloodstream oxidative environment affecting PON1’s role in fatty acid oxidation. PON1 loss also eliminates marine mammals’ main defense against neurotoxicity from specific man-made organophosphorus compounds, implying potential risks in modern environment

Paraoxonase-1 is related to inflammation, fibrosis and PPAR delta in experimental liver disease

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>Paraoxonase-1 (PON1) is an antioxidant enzyme synthesized by the liver. It protects against liver impairment and attenuates the production of the pro-inflammatory monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1). We investigated the relationships between hepatic PON1 and MCP-1 expression in rats with liver disease and explored the possible molecular mechanisms involved.</p> <p>Methods</p> <p>CCl₄was administered for up to 12 weeks to induce liver damage. Serum and hepatic levels of PON1 and MCP-1, their gene and protein expression, nuclear transcription factors, and histological and biochemical markers of liver impairment were measured.</p> <p>Results</p> <p>High levels of PON1 and MCP-1 expression were observed at 12^thweek in the hepatocytes surrounding the fibrous septa and inflammatory areas. CCl₄-administered rats had an increased hepatic PON1 concentration that was related to decreased gene transcription and inhibited protein degradation. Decreased PON1 gene transcription was associated with PPARδ expression. These changes were accompanied by increased hepatic MCP-1 concentration and gene expression. There were significant direct relationships between hepatic PON1 and MCP-1 concentrations (P = 0.005) and between PON1 and the amount of activated stellate cells (P = 0.001).</p> <p>Conclusion</p> <p>Our results from this experimental model suggest a hepato-protective role for PON1 against inflammation, fibrosis and liver disease mediated by MCP-1.</p

Reduction of Paraoxonase Expression Followed by Inactivation across Independent Semiaquatic Mammals Suggests Stepwise Path to Pseudogenization.

Convergent adaptation to the same environment by multiple lineages frequently involves rapid evolutionary change at the same genes, implicating these genes as important for environmental adaptation. Such adaptive molecular changes may yield either change or loss of protein function; loss of function can eliminate newly deleterious proteins or reduce energy necessary for protein production. We previously found a striking case of recurrent pseudogenization of the Paraoxonase 1 (Pon1) gene among aquatic mammal lineages-Pon1 became a pseudogene with genetic lesions, such as stop codons and frameshifts, at least four times independently in aquatic and semiaquatic mammals. Here, we assess the landscape and pace of pseudogenization by studying Pon1 sequences, expression levels, and enzymatic activity across four aquatic and semiaquatic mammal lineages: pinnipeds, cetaceans, otters, and beavers. We observe in beavers and pinnipeds an unexpected reduction in expression of Pon3, a paralog with similar expression patterns but different substrate preferences. Ultimately, in all lineages with aquatic/semiaquatic members, we find that preceding any coding-level pseudogenization events in Pon1, there is a drastic decrease in expression, followed by relaxed selection, thus allowing accumulation of disrupting mutations. The recurrent loss of Pon1 function in aquatic/semiaquatic lineages is consistent with a benefit to Pon1 functional loss in aquatic environments. Accordingly, we examine diving and dietary traits across pinniped species as potential driving forces of Pon1 functional loss. We find that loss is best associated with diving activity and likely results from changes in selective pressures associated with hypoxia and hypoxia-induced inflammation

Alteracions de la paraoxonasa-1 en l'hepatopatia crònica

La família de les paraoxonases (PON) comprèn 3 enzims: PON1, PON2 y PON3. En humans, PON1, el membre més estudiat, s'expressa bàsicament en el fetge i circula associada a les HDL. PON1 es un enzim polimòrfic que pot degradar des d'organofosforats fins a diferents tipus d'ésters, lactones i xenobiòtics, però la seva funció fisiològica és la d'hidrolitzar peròxids lipídics. També té una acció anti-inflamatòria, ja que pot atenuar la secreció de MCP-1, una quimioquina pro-inflamatòria. L'estrés oxidatiu i la inflamació juguen un paper fonamental en el desenvolupament de malalties hepàtiques. Tenint en compte l'efecte protector de PON1 contra l'estrés oxidatiu, seria molt probable trobar una associació entre PON1 i les hepatopaties cròniques. Objectius de la Tesi: a) investigar la presència d'alteracions en l'activitat i expressió de PON1 en hepatopaties cròniques humanes i experimentals, i estudiar els mecanismes moleculars relacionats; b) avaluar un nou assaig enzimàtic utilitzant un substrat no tòxic que mesura l'activitat lactonasa de PON1; c) estudiar l'eficàcia diagnòstica de la determinació de l'activitat PON1 en l'avaluació clínica de la malaltia hepàtica.Conclusions: 1) PON1 podria regular l'estrés oxidatiu mitjançant la degradació de lipoperòxids; la inflamació, actuant com una barrera contra la inflamació induïda per MCP-1; i l'apoptosi cel·lular, correlacionant-se amb un augment en la forma soluble del receptor FAS (sFAS) 2) L'activitat PON1 en sèrum de pacients hepatòpates podria disminuir a causa d'alteracions en la mida i composició de les HDL, i/o d'un augment en l'estrés oxidatiu 3) L'expressió hepàtica i sèrica de PON1 augmentarien a causa d'una disminució en la síntesi d'HDL, i d'una disminució de la proteòlisi cel·lular 4) La determinació de l'activitat lactonasa de PON1 en sèrum, utilitzant el substrat TBBL, és un mètode fiable, no tòxic i semi-automàtic, i està menys influenciada pels polimorfismes genètics que l'activitat esterasa utilitzant paraoxó 5) La determinació de l'actividad PON1 sèrica té una elevada eficàcia diagnòstica i pot ser un útil complement a les proves de valoració de la funció hepàtica que s'utilitzen en la pràctica clínica.The family of serum paraoxonases (PON) consist of three enzymes: PON1 (the most investigated member), PON2 and PON3. In humans, PON1 expression is mainly found in the liver, and circulates tightly bound to HDL. PON1 is a polymorphic enzyme that is able to degradate organophosphates and different type of esters, lactones and xenobiotics, but its physiological function is to hydrolise lipid peroxides. It has also an antiinflamatoy role since it can attenuate MCP-1 (a proinflamatory chemokine) secretion. Oxidative stress and inflammation play key roles in the development of liver diseases. Since PON1 has a protective effect against oxidative stress, it could be plausible to find an association between PON1 and chronic hepatic diseases.Aims of the Thesis: a) to investigate the presence of alterations in PON1 activity and expression in human and experimental chronic hepatic diseases, and to study the molecular mechanisms involved; b) to evaluate a new enzymatic assay using a non toxic substrate that measures PON1 lactonase activity; c) to assess the diagnostic accuracy of the measurement of serum PON1 activity in the clinic evaluation of liver diseases.Conclusions: 1) PON1 could regulate oxidative stress by lipid peroxides degradation; inflammation, by acting as a barrier against MCP-1 induced inflammation; and cell apoptosis, by its relationship with the increase of sFAS, the soluble form of FAS receptor 2) Serum PON1 activity in patients with chronic liver disease could decreased as a consequence of alterations in the size and composition of HDL, and/or an increase of oxidative stress 3) Serum and hepatic PON1 expression would increase because of the decrease in HDL synthesis, and the decrease of cellular proteolysis 4) Serum PON1 lactonase activity measurement, using TBBL as a susbtrate, is a reliable, non-toxic, semi-automated assay, and is less influenced by genetic polymorphisms than PON1 esterase activity using paraoxon 5) Serum PON1 activity measurement has a high diagnostic accuracy and may contribute significantly to the evaluation of liver function in the clinical setting