Diagnosing the role of the state for local collective action : types of action situations and policy instruments

Unidad de excelencia María de Maeztu MdM-2015-0552This paper presents a diagnostic approach to the role and capacity of governments to facilitate local collective action and alleviate environmental problems. The paper adds to a nascent scholarship aiming to conciliate theories on "governance by government" and "governance by self-organization". We adopt two premises for that purpose: (1) policy instruments shall be tailored to the strategic nature of local resource management decisions; and (2) such nature is not static and can be modified via governmental policies. We first build on the Institutional Analysis and Development (IAD) framework to characterize the decision-making situations that local resource users face and the local rules that shape said situations. Then, based on common pool resource (CPR) and policy instrument choice theory, we identify four mechanisms through which different policy instruments can facilitate local collective action (change in payoffs and their perception, reduction of transaction costs, reduction of uncertainty, and normative consonance). This analytical approach is then applied to four illustrative cases of water management in Germany, France, Greece and Spain. As shown, local resource users are embedded in not one but many overlapping decision-making situations. In this context, the promotion of collective action is rarely accomplished via a single policy instrument or mechanism but via bundles of them. Also, the paper illustrates the importance of understanding how governmental policies modify the structure of rules and incentives that affect local resource users, potentially facilitating local collective action and the solution of environmental problems

Adsorption of Model Perfumes at the Air–Solution Interface by Coadsorption with an Anionic Surfactant

The adsorption of the model perfumes phenyl ethanol, PE, and linalool, LL, at the air–solution interface by coadsorption with the anionic surfactant sodium dodecyl 6-benezene sulfonate, LAS-6, has been studied primarily by neutron reflectivity, NR. The variation in the mixed surface adsorption with solution composition is highly nonideal, and the more hydrophobic LL is more surface active. At a LAS-6 concentration of 0.5 mM the adsorption of PE and LL is broadly similar but with the LL systematically more surface active, and at 2 mM the LL completes more effectively for the surface than the PE. The variation in surface composition with solution composition and concentration reflect the greater hydrophobicity and hence surface activity of LL, and the greater solubility of PE in aqueous solution. Changing the geometry of the LAS isomer, from the symmetrical LAS-6 geometry to the more asymmetrical LAS-4, results in the LL competing more effectively for the surface due to changes in the packing constraints associated with the hydrophobic region. The results provide insights into the factors that affect coadsorption that can be more broadly applied to the surface delivery of a wide range of molecules other than perfumes

The Formation of Surface Multilayers at the Air–Water Interface from Sodium Diethylene Glycol Monoalkyl Ether Sulfate/AlCl₃ Solutions: The Role of the Alkyl Chain Length

The influence of the alkyl chain length on surface multilayer formation at the air–water interface for the anionic surfactant sodium diethylene glycol monoalkyl ether sulfate, SAE₂S, in the presence of Al³⁺ multivalent counterions, in the form of AlCl₃, is described. In the absence of electrolyte, the saturated monolayer adsorption is determined by the headgroup geometry and is independent of the alkyl chain length. In the presence of Al³⁺ counterions, surface multilayer formation occurs, due to the strong SAE₂S/Al³⁺ binding and complexation. The neutron reflection data show that the alkyl chain length of the surfactant has a significant impact upon the evolution of the surface multilayer structure with surfactant and AlCl₃ concentration. Increasing the alkyl chain length from decyl to tetradecyl results in the surface multilayer formation occurring at lower surfactant and AlCl₃ concentrations. At the short alkyl chain lengths, decyl and dodecyl, the regions of multilayer formation with a small number of bilayers are increasingly extended with decreasing alkyl chain length. For the alkyl chain lengths of tetradecyl and hexadecyl, the surface behavior is further affected by decreases in the surfactant solubility in the presence of AlCl₃, and this ultimately dominates the surface behavior at the longer alkyl chain lengths

Impact of AlCl₃ on the Self-Assembly of the Anionic Surfactant Sodium Polyethylene Glycol Monoalkyl Ether Sulfate in Aqueous Solution

Small-angle neutron scattering has been used to study the self-assembly of the anionic surfactant sodium polyethylene glycol monoalkyl ether sulfate in aqueous solution and in the presence of Al³⁺ multivalent counterions in the form of AlCl₃. The addition of the Al³⁺ ions promotes significant micellar growth of the initially globular micelles into highly elongated structures until ultimately lamellar structures form. Increasing the size of the polyethylene oxide, EO, group progressively suppresses micellar growth before lamellar formation. Reducing the alkyl chain length has a similar effect on the structural evolution. Both trends are associated with increased solubility with increasing EO group size and decreasing alkyl chain length. Both the size of the EO group and the length of the alkyl chain affect sodium diethylene glycol monododecyl ether sulfate/Al³⁺ complex formation and drive lamellar formation to progressively higher AlCl₃ concentrations

Acclimation responses to temperature vary with vertical stratification: implications for vulnerability of soil-dwelling species to extreme temperature events

The occurrence of summer heat waves is predicted to increase in amplitude and frequency in the near future, but the consequences of such extreme events are largely unknown, especially for belowground organisms. Soil organisms usually exhibit strong vertical stratification, resulting in more frequent exposure to extreme temperatures for surface-dwelling species than for soil-dwelling species. Therefore soil-dwelling species are expected to have poor acclimation responses to cope with temperature changes. We used five species of surface-dwelling and four species of soil-dwelling Collembola that habituate different depths in the soil. We tested for differences in tolerance to extreme temperatures after acclimation to warm and cold conditions. We also tested for differences in acclimation of the underlying physiology by looking at changes in membrane lipid composition. Chill coma recovery time, heat knockdown time and fatty acid profiles were determined after 1 week of acclimation to either 5 or 20 °C. Our results showed that surface-dwelling Collembola better maintained increased heat tolerance across acclimation temperatures, but no such response was found for cold tolerance. Concordantly, four of the five surface-dwelling Collembola showed up to fourfold changes in relative abundance of fatty acids after 1 week of acclimation, whereas none of the soil-dwelling species showed a significant adjustment in fatty acid composition. Strong physiological responses to temperature fluctuations may have become redundant in soil-dwelling species due to the relative thermal stability of their subterranean habitat. Based on the results of the four species studied, we expect that unless soil-dwelling species can temporarily retreat to avoid extreme temperatures, the predicted increase in heat waves under climatic change renders these soil-dwelling species more vulnerable to extinction than species with better physiological capabilities. Being able to act under a larger thermal range is probably costly and could reduce maximum performance at the optimal temperatur

Multivalent-Counterion-Induced Surfactant Multilayer Formation at Hydrophobic and Hydrophilic Solid–Solution Interfaces

Surface multilayer formation from the anionic–nonionic surfactant mixture of sodium dodecyl dioxyethylene sulfate, SLES, and monododecyl dodecaethylene glycol, C₁₂E₁₂, by the addition of multivalent Al³⁺ counterions at the solid–solution interface is observed and characterized by neutron reflectivity, NR. The ability to form surface multilayer structures on hydrophobic and hydrophilic silica and cellulose surfaces is demonstrated. The surface multilayer formation is more pronounced and more well developed on the hydrophilic and hydrophobic silica surfaces than on the hydrophilic and hydrophobic cellulose surfaces. The less well developed multilayer formation on the cellulose surfaces is attributed to the greater surface inhomogeneities of the cellulose surface which partially inhibit lateral coherence and growth of the multilayer domains at the surface. The surface multilayer formation is associated with extreme wetting properties and offers the potential for the manipulation of the solid surfaces for enhanced adsorption and control of the wetting behavior

Multivalent-Counterion-Induced Surfactant Multilayer Formation at Hydrophobic and Hydrophilic Solid–Solution Interfaces

Surface multilayer formation from the anionic–nonionic surfactant mixture of sodium dodecyl dioxyethylene sulfate, SLES, and monododecyl dodecaethylene glycol, C₁₂E₁₂, by the addition of multivalent Al³⁺ counterions at the solid–solution interface is observed and characterized by neutron reflectivity, NR. The ability to form surface multilayer structures on hydrophobic and hydrophilic silica and cellulose surfaces is demonstrated. The surface multilayer formation is more pronounced and more well developed on the hydrophilic and hydrophobic silica surfaces than on the hydrophilic and hydrophobic cellulose surfaces. The less well developed multilayer formation on the cellulose surfaces is attributed to the greater surface inhomogeneities of the cellulose surface which partially inhibit lateral coherence and growth of the multilayer domains at the surface. The surface multilayer formation is associated with extreme wetting properties and offers the potential for the manipulation of the solid surfaces for enhanced adsorption and control of the wetting behavior

Impact of Electrolyte on Adsorption at the Air–Water Interface for Ternary Surfactant Mixtures above the Critical Micelle Concentration

The composition of the air–water adsorbed layer of the ternary surfactant mixture, octaethylene monododecyl ether, C₁₂E₈, sodium dodecyl 6-benzenesulfonate, LAS, and sodium dioxyethylene glycol monododecyl sulfate, SLES, and of each of the binary mixtures, with varying amounts of electrolyte, has been studied by neutron reflectivity. The measurements were made above the mixed critical micelle concentration. In the absence of electrolyte adsorption is dominated by the nonionic component C₁₂E₈ but addition of electrolyte gradually changes this so that SLES and LAS dominate at higher electrolyte concentrations. The composition of the adsorbed layer in both binary and ternary mixtures can be quantitatively described using the pseudo–phase approximation with quadratic and cubic interactions in the excess free energy of mixing (<i>G</i>_E) at both the surface and in the micelles. A single set of parameters fits all the experimental data. A similar analysis is effective for a mixture in which SDS replaces SLES. Addition of electrolyte weakens the synergistic SLES–C₁₂E₈ and LAS–C₁₂E₈ interactions, consistent with them being dominated by electrostatic interactions. The SLES–LAS (and SDS–LAS) interaction is moderately strong at the surface and is little affected by addition of electrolyte, suggesting that it is controlled by structural or packing factors. Most of the significant interactions in the mixtures are unsymmetrical with respect to composition, with the minimum in <i>G</i>_E at the 1:2 or 2:1 composition. There is a small structural contribution to the LAS-C₁₂E₈ interaction that leads to a minimum intermediate in composition between 1:2 and 1:1 (LAS:C₁₂E₈) and to a significant residual <i>G</i>_<i>E</i> in strong electrolyte

Surface Adsorption in Ternary Surfactant Mixtures above the Critical Micelle Concentration: Effects of Asymmetry on the Composition Dependence of the Excess Free Energy

The composition of the adsorbed layer of a ternary surfactant mixture at the air–water interface has been studied by neutron reflectivity. The adsorption of the ternary mixture of octaethylene monododecyl ether (C₁₂E₈) sodium dodecyl 6-benzene sulfonate (LAS), and sodium dioxyethylene glycol monododecyl sulfate (SLES), as well as each of the binary mixtures, at solution concentrations greater than the mixed critical micelle concentration is highly nonideal. In the ternary mixture, the surface adsorption is dominated by C₁₂E₈ and LAS, and there is little SLES at the interface. The departure from ideality in the binary mixtures can be quantitatively described by applying the pseudophase approximation with quadratic and cubic terms in the excess free energy of mixing (<i>G</i>_E) both at the surface and in the micelles. The same parameters that describe the binary interactions give a quantitative fit to the adsorbed fractions in the ternary mixture over a wide range of composition. A similar analysis is effective for the mixture containing sodium dodecyl sulfate instead of SLES. Of the set of six <i>G</i>_E required to fit the ternary data, one is ideal (SLES–LAS) and three, LAS–C₁₂E₈ (micelle) and C₁₂E₈–SLES (micelle and surface), have minima occurring at a composition (mole fraction) of the anionic species of 1/3

Adsorption at Air–Water and Oil–Water Interfaces and Self-Assembly in Aqueous Solution of Ethoxylated Polysorbate Nonionic Surfactants

The Tween nonionic surfactants are ethoxylated sorbitan esters, which have 20 ethylene oxide groups attached to the sorbitan headgroup and a single alkyl chain, lauryl, palmityl, stearyl, or oleyl. They are an important class of surfactants that are extensively used in emulsion and foam stabilization and in applications associated with foods, cosmetics and pharmaceuticals. A range of ethoxylated polysorbate surfactants, with differing degrees of ethoxylation from 3 to 50 ethylene oxide groups, have been synthesized and characterized by neutron reflection, small-angle neutron scattering, and surface tension. In conjunction with different alkyl chain groups, this provides the opportunity to modify their surface properties, their self-assembly in solution, and their interaction with macromolecules, such as proteins. Adsorption at the air–water and oil–water interfaces and solution self-assembly of the range of ethoxylated polysorbate surfactants synthesized are presented and discussed