Cautionary tales for reduced-gravity particle research

Failure of experiments conducted on the KC-135 aircraft in zero gravity are discussed. Tests that were a total failure are reported. Why the failure occurred and the sort of questions that potential researchers should ask in order to avoid the appearance of abstracts such as this are discussed. Many types of aggregation studies were proposed for the Space Station, and it is hoped that the following synopsis of events will add a touch of reality to experimentation proposed for this zero-gravity environment

New Records of Michigan Cicadidae (Homoptera), With Notes on the Use of Songs to Monitor Range Changes

We present records of Diceroprocta vitripennis, Tibicen chloromera, and Tibicen pruinosa (new state record) in Michigan. Monitoring geographic range changes and population size differences by song suggests several population situations for cicadas: (1) sizable populations in most areas of apparently good habitat; (2) widely separated single individuals or small populations on the edges of populated regions, representing range extensions that may be of limited duration; (3) one or a few individuals present only once, probably transferred in soil on roots, and ultimately unsuccessful. Species- specific calling songs allow sensitive measurement of species\u27 range changes

Virtually Enhanced Fluid Laboratories for Teaching Meteorology

The “Weather in a Tank” project offers instructors a repertoire of rotating tank experiments and a curriculum in fluid dynamics to better assist students in learning how to move between phenomena in the real world and basic principles of rotating fluid dynamics that play a central role in determining the climate of the planet. Despite the increasing use of laboratory experiments in teaching meteorology, many teachers and students do not have access to suitable apparatuses and so cannot benefit from them. This article describes a “virtually enhanced” laboratory that could be very effective in getting across a flavor of the experiments and bring them to a wider audience. In the pedagogical spirit of Weather in a Tank, the focus is on how simple underlying principles, illustrated through laboratory experiments, shape the observed structure of the large-scale atmospheric circulation.National Science Foundation (U.S.) (Grant AGS-1338814

The Dynamics of Norovirus Outbreak Epidemics: Recent Insights

Noroviruses are a major cause of gastroenteritis outbreaks worldwide. Norovirus outbreaks frequently occur as epidemics which appear to be related to both genetic and environmental factors. This review considers recent progress in understanding these factors. The norovirus genome undergoes continuous change and this appears to be important in the persistence of the virus in the community. Studies on the common GII.4 genotype have shown that some norovirus outbreak epidemics involving this genotype are correlated with specific changes in the genome. In contrast to the growing understanding of the role of genetic factors in norovirus outbreak epidemics, the role of environmental factors is less well understood. Topics reviewed here include long term excretion of norovirus in some individuals, long term survivability of norovirus in the environment, the role of meteorological factors in the control of norovirus outbreaks and the possible zoonotic transmission of the virus

Particle formation and interaction

A wide variety of experiments can be conducted on the Space Station that involve the physics of small particles of planetary significance. Processes of interest include nucleation and condensation of particles from a gas, aggregation of small particles into larger ones, and low velocity collisions of particles. All of these processes could be investigated with a general purpose facility on the Space Station. The microgravity environment would be necessary to perform many experiments, as they generally require that particles be suspended for periods substantially longer than are practical at 1 g. Only experiments relevant to planetary processes will be discussed in detail here, but it is important to stress that a particle facility will be useful to a wide variety of scientific disciplines, and can be used to address many scientific problems

Decadal nitrogen addition alters chemical composition of soil organic matter in a boreal forest

Boreal forests store approximately 470 Pg of carbon (C) in the soil, and rates of soil C accumulation are significantly enhanced by long-term nitrogen (N) enrichment. Dissecting the compositional profile of soils could help better understand the potential mechanisms driving changes in C cycling under enriched N conditions.We examined the impacts of long-term N addition on the chemical composition of soil organic matter (SOM) in a mature boreal forest. Two large experimental plots (15 ha each) were established: a control and a fertilised plot. The latter received NH4NO3 fertilizer at an average rate of 75 kg N ha(-1) year for 12 years. While the centre of this plot received the prescribed amounts of fertilizer, the year-to-year variation in distribution of fertilizer around the designated edges of the plot created a gradient in N-loading. Along this gradient, a compositional shift in SOM in the organic horizon was assessed using two methods: pyrolysis-gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) and solid-state C-13 nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (C-13 NMR).Both of these methods revealed that the chemical composition of SOM changed with increasing N loading, with an increased fraction of lignin derivatives (i.e., aromatic, methoxy/N-alkyl C) relative to that of carbohydrate (i.e., 0-alkyl C), accompanied by increased soil C mass (kg m(-2)) at the fertilised plot. Also, the relative abundance of N compounds in the pyrolysis products increased with the N loading, mainly due to increased methyl N-acetyl-alpha(D)-glucosaminide in the F/H horizon, plausibly of microbial origin. Microbial N processing likely contributed to soil accumulation of fertilizer-derived N.Our results corroborate the hypothesis that addition of inorganic N suppresses enzymatic white-rot decomposition relative to non-enzymatic brown-rot oxidation. Taken together, our study suggests that N enrichment leads to a selective accumulation of lignin-derived compounds and points to a key role of such compounds for N-induced SOM accumulation

Borehole Equilibration: Testing a New Method to Monitor the Isotopic Composition of Tree Xylem Water in situ

Forest water use has been difficult to quantify. One promising approach is to measure the isotopic composition of plant water, e.g., the transpired water vapor or xylem water. Because different water sources, e.g., groundwater versus shallow soil water, often show different isotopic signatures, isotopes can be used to investigate the depths from which plants take up their water and how this changes over time. Traditionally such measurements have relied on the extraction of wood samples, which provide limited time resolution at great expense, and risk possible artifacts. Utilizing a borehole drilled through a tree's stem, we propose a new method based on the notion that water vapor in a slow-moving airstream approaches isotopic equilibration with the much greater mass of liquid water in the xylem. We present two empirical data sets showing that the method can work in practice. We then present a theoretical model estimating equilibration times and exploring the limits at which the approach will fail. The method provides a simple, cheap, and accurate means of continuously estimating the isotopic composition of the source water for transpiration

Stare decisis i „zdrowy rozsądek” w cywilnej i karnej jurysprudencji amerykańskiej

Based on various law sources, the American common law is connected by a particular role of prior judicial rulings as a basis of judicial practice. The principle of stare decisis, which exists within its framework, leads to considering decisions of courts of higher instances as binding (settled in a binding manner of a given case type in the convention of res iudicata). However, it does not mean that precedents may not be amended or broken. In such a situation following factors may appear: defective rulings, triggering incoherent or unjust consequences, contraction with other precedents, and change of circumstances, which have led to a precedent decision to be taken.Amerykańskie common law, kształtujące się na gruncie różnorodnych źródeł,wiąże się ze szczególną rolą wcześniejszego orzecznictwa jako podstawą praktyki sądowej. Istniejąca w jej ramach zasada stare decisis prowadzi do uznania decyzji sądów wyższych instancji jako wiążących (wiążąco rozstrzygających dany typ sprawy w konwencji res iudicata). Nie oznacza to jednak, że precedensy nie mogą być zmienione i przełamane. Umożliwia to pojawienie się takich czynników, jak: wadliwość orzeczenia, wywołanie niespójnych lub niesłusznych (niesprawiedliwych) skutków, sprzeczność z innymi precedensami oraz zmiana okoliczności, które wywołały podjęcie decyzji precedensowej