New insight on the functions organization of the insula of Reil and the inner perisylvian regions: a multidisciplinary approach

The insula of Reil is a wide cortical region (~ 160mm² in rhesus monkey) buried in the depth of the sylvian fissure with an incomplete opercularization in non-human primates that reaches a complete opercularization only in the human brain. Researchers attributed to the insula and adjoining perisylvian regions in both monkeys and humans a very wide range of functions including autonomic and visceral functions, emotions, processing of various sensorial modalities (gustatory, olfactory, somatosensory, auditory). Based on these observations, the present research was undertaken in order to assess the eventual role of the insula and inner perisylvian regions in each of these functions. Two complementary approaches were combined: intracortical microstimulation in awake free behaving monkeys and anatomical connection study. The first study investigates the functional organization of the insula and inner perisylvian regions in macaque monkeys in order to assess a possible somatotopic organization. ICMS experiments were carried out on two awake free-moving rhesus monkeys (macaca mulatta). ICMS was performed with 50 Hz biphasic waves (0.2 msec of phase width) lasting from 50 msec up to 3 sec. Intensity was varied in a range up to 4 mA. During experiments, overt behavior and cardiac activity (ECG) evoked by ICMS have been monitored. The results showed that ICMS of inner perisylvian regions evokes a wide range of behavioral responses, which appeared to be roughly somatotopically arranged. In the rostral part a representation of oro-alimentary behaviour is present; responses like chewing, mouthing and deglutition prevail dorsally (frontal operculum and dorsal insula). In the ventral part (anterior ventral insula), strong viscero-motor responses (vomiting) are evoked. In the middle part (fronto-parietal operculum and middle dorsal insula), complex behaviours are evoked. In the dorsal caudal part (parietal operculum and posterior dorsal insula), simple motor responses involving distal and proximal effectors are evoked. Moreover, in the ventral intermediate sector of the insula, ICMS evoked communicative responses: the stimulations induced the monkey to lip-smack only when facing the experimenter. In the ventral insula and the lower bank, a miscellaneous of stereotyped and repetitive responses was also present. For what concerns the effects of ICMS on the autonomic system, a heart rate variability (HRV) analysis was carried out. The results showed different responses (bradycardia and tachycardia) along the rostro-caudal axis: bradycardia was evoked by stimulation of the rostral portion, showing an increase of the effect along the dorso-ventral axis. The posterior part of the studied regions showed a segregation of spots where stimulation induces bradycardia, tachycardia and no-effect. The present results show the involvement of inner perisylvian regions in the control of behavior as well as in the control of autonomic nervous system functions. Moreover, they show that such control obeys to a coarse somatotopically arranged segregation of functions within the explored regions. In the second experiment, we investigated the cortical and subcortical connections of the insular cortex. Three anatomical tracers were injected in three different sites where the functional properties were studied by mean of ICMS. On the one hand, the findings of this experiment are in agreement with what had been reported in the literature. The anterior insulo-orbital regions where oro-alimentary behaviours were evoked are connected with orbito-frontal areas (area 12, 11, 13 and 14), the rostral ventral prefrontal cortex (area 46), the precentral opercular area (PrCO), anterior cingulate areas (24b\c and 24a, 32), temporal pole, superior temporal pole (STP), inferior temporal gyrus (TEm, TEa\d), entorhinal cortex, baso-lateral amygdaloid nuclei, hypothalamus and ventral tegmental area (VTA). The ventral middle insula, where communicative responses were evoked, shows connections with areas 12r\m, 13l\m and 11 of the orbitofrontal cortex, area 45a of the prefrontal cortex, with area 44, area F5c of the premotor cortex, disgranular opercular area (DO), areas 24c and 24b of the cingulate cortex, temporal pole, TEa and TEm of the inferior temporal cortex, IPa and amygdala. Injection in the most medial part of SII, bordering with the posterior dorsal insula, where simple movement of lower limbs were evoked, is connected with area F3 of the premotor cortex, primary motor cortex, posterior cingulate areas (32, 24d, 23c), primary and secondary somatosensory areas, superior parietal cortex (PE, MIP) and inferior parietal lobule (AIP, PFop, PGop). On the other hand, these findings are in agreement with the functional properties of the injected sites, since the connected areas are functionally involved in different aspects of the behaviours evoked by ICMS performed in the injected loci. Taken together, the findings of these two experiments not only confirm a role of the insular cortex and the inner perisylvian regions in a wide range of behaviours and in the control of the autonomic functions, but also improve our understanding of the dynamics of the involvement of the stimulated regions within neural networks responsible of complex behaviours

Shaking B mediates synaptic coupling between auditory sensory neurons and the giant fiber of drosophila melanogaster

The Johnston’s Organ neurons (JONs) form chemical and electrical synapses onto the giant fiber neuron (GF), as part of the neuronal circuit that mediates the GF escape response in Drosophila melanogaster. The purpose of this study was to identify which of the 8 Drosophila innexins (invertebrate gap junction proteins) mediates the electrical connection at this synapse. The GF is known to express Shaking B (ShakB), specifically the ShakB(N+16) isoform only, at its output synapses in the thorax. The shakB2 mutation disrupts these GF outputs and also abolishes JON-GF synaptic transmission. However, the identity of the innexin that forms the presynaptic hemichannels in the JONs remains unknown. We used electrophysiology, immunocytochemistry and dye injection, along with presynaptically-driven RNA interference, to investigate this question. The amplitude of the compound action potential recorded in response to sound from the base of the antenna (sound-evoked potential, or SEP) was reduced by RNAi of the innexins Ogre, Inx3, Inx6 and, to a lesser extent Inx2, suggesting that they could be required in JONs for proper development, excitability, or synchronization of action potentials. The strength of the JON-GF connection itself was reduced to background levels only by RNAi of shakB, not of the other seven innexins. ShakB knockdown prevented Neurobiotin coupling between GF and JONs and removed the plaques of ShakB protein immunoreactivity that are present at the region of contact. Specific shakB RNAi lines that are predicted to target the ShakB(L) or ShakB(N) isoforms alone did not reduce the synaptic strength, implying that it is ShakB(N+16) that is required in the presynaptic neurons. Overexpression of ShakB(N+16) in JONs caused the formation of ectopic dye coupling, whereas ShakB(N) prevented it altogether, supporting this conclusion and also suggesting that gap junction proteins may have an instructive role in synaptic target choice

Responses of mirror neurons in area F5 to hand and tool grasping observation

Mirror neurons are a distinct class of neurons that discharge both during the execution of a motor act and during observation of the same or similar motor act performed by another individual. However, the extent to which mirror neurons coding a motor act with a specific goal (e.g., grasping) might also respond to the observation of a motor act having the same goal, but achieved with artificial effectors, is not yet established. In the present study, we addressed this issue by recording mirror neurons from the ventral premotor cortex (area F5) of two monkeys trained to grasp objects with pliers. Neuron activity was recorded during the observation and execution of grasping performed with the hand, with pliers and during observation of an experimenter spearing food with a stick. The results showed that virtually all neurons responding to the observation of hand grasping also responded to the observation of grasping with pliers and, many of them to the observation of spearing with a stick. However, the intensity and pattern of the response differed among conditions. Hand grasping observation determined the earliest and the strongest discharge, while pliers grasping and spearing observation triggered weaker responses at longer latencies. We conclude that F5 grasping mirror neurons respond to the observation of a family of stimuli leading to the same goal. However, the response pattern depends upon the similarity between the observed motor act and the one executed by the hand, the natural motor template

A high-speed vertical transition for multi-layer A1N carrier boards designed by time-domain reflectometry

High density, high speed photonic integrated circuits (PICs) have large numbers of closely spaced DC and RF contacts, which must be connected in the package. The use of multilayer carrier boards to interface between the contacts and the package gives high performance and high density. In order to be effective as a packaging solution, these multi-layer carrier boards need high-speed electrical channels with good performance. Also, the boards usually need high thermal conductivity to manage the heat. Co-fired aluminium nitride (A1N) has the needed high thermal conductivity. However, there are no designs of multi-layer high-speed channels in the literature for co-fired A1N. Therefore, this article presents a high-speed multi-layer channel for co-fired A1N and its measured results. Two transmission lines were designed that showed a measured loss of Ë 0.09dBmm-1 at 40GHz. The vertical transition allows for arbitrary planar rotations of the channel and showed a measured 3 dB bandwidth of 33 GHz and small penalties in the eye diagram with a 44 Gbits-1 signal. The channels showed crosstalk below -30 dB

Wafer-level vacuum sealing for packaging of silicon photonic MEMS

Silicon (Si) photonic micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS), with its low-power phase shifters and tunable couplers, is emerging as a promising technology for large-scale reconfigurable photonics with potential applications for example in photonic accelerators for artificial intelligence (AI) workloads. For silicon photonic MEMS devices, hermetic/vacuum packaging is crucial to the performance and longevity, and to protect the photonic devices from contamination. Here, we demonstrate a wafer-level vacuum packaging approach to hermetically seal Si photonic MEMS wafers produced in the iSiPP50G Si photonics foundry platform of IMEC. The packaging approach consists of transfer bonding and sealing the silicon photonic MEMS devices with 30 μm-thick Si caps, which were prefabricated on a 100 mm-diameter silicon-on-insulator (SOI) wafer. The packaging process achieved successful wafer-scale vacuum sealing of various photonic devices. The functionality of photonic MEMS after the hermetic/vacuum packaging was confirmed. Thus, the demonstrated thin Si cap packaging shows the possibility of a novel vacuum sealing method for MEMS integrated in standard Si photonics platforms

Burnout Among First-Year Medical Students During COVID-19 Pandemic in Mexico: A Cross-Sectional Study

Background: The coronavirus pandemic is an international public health emergency without precedence in modern history. It represents a challenge to students’ academic and psychological stability due to the changes it caused in daily life. This study aimed to evaluate the prevalence and level of burnout in medical students caused by the academic and psychological instability that the pandemic represents. Methods: A prospective cross-sectional study was designed using the Maslach Burnout Inventory-Student Survey (MBI-SS). This evaluated the emotional exhaustion due to study demands, cynicism, and negative self-academic efficacy. This study was based in the school of medicine of the Universidad Autonoma de Nuevo Leon (UANL) in Monterrey, Mexico, during the Spring semester of 2020. Results: A total of 154 (93 women and 61 men) first-year medical students participated (response rate of 36.4%). Burnout was identified in 14.9% (n=23), and high emotional exhaustion in 53.9% (n=83). Burnout was almost 4 times more likely to develop in men than in women (aOR = 4.8; 95% Confidence Interval=1.7-13.3) when considering age as a covariable in the multivariable model. Conclusion: Further epidemiological studies of burnout syndrome in medical students are needed, and schools should consider promoting mental health and making programs available for their students to help overcome the emotional and social challenges during the pandemic

MORPHIC : programmable photonic circuits enabled by silicon photonic MEMS

In the European project MORPHIC we develop a platform for programmable silicon photonic circuits enabled by waveguide-integrated micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS). MEMS can add compact, and low-power phase shifters and couplers to an established silicon photonics platform with high-speed modulators and detectors. This MEMS technology is used for a new class of programmable photonic circuits, that can be reconfigured using electronics and software, consisting of large interconnected meshes of phase shifters and couplers. MORPHIC is also developing the packaging and driver electronics interfacing schemes for such large circuits, creating a supply chain for rapid prototyping new photonic chip concepts. These will be demonstrated in different applications, such as switching, beamforming and microwave photonics

Neural circuits controlling behavior and autonomic functions in medicinal leeches

In the study of the neural circuits underlying behavior and autonomic functions, the stereotyped and accessible nervous system of medicinal leeches, Hirudo sp., has been particularly informative. These leeches express well-defined behaviors and autonomic movements which are amenable to investigation at the circuit and neuronal levels. In this review, we discuss some of the best understood of these movements and the circuits which underlie them, focusing on swimming, crawling and heartbeat. We also discuss the rudiments of decision-making: the selection between generally mutually exclusive behaviors at the neuronal level