Neuronal activity in the primate amygdala during economic choice

Multiple lines of evidence link economic choices to the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), but other brain regions may contribute to the computation and comparison of economic values. A particularly strong candidate is the basolateral amygdala (BLA). Amygdala lesions impair performance in reinforcer devaluation tasks, suggesting that the BLA contributes to value computation. Furthermore, previous studies of the BLA have found neuronal activity consistent with a value representation. Here, we recorded from the BLA of two male rhesus macaques choosing between different juices. Offered quantities varied from trial to trial, and relative values were inferred from choices. Approximately one-third of BLA cells were task-related. Our analyses revealed the presence of three groups of neurons encoding variable

Gender Bias and Stereotypes in Medicine: A Medical Student Experience

Gender bias is a universal phenomenon that is strongly embedded in human society. Its omnipresence originates consequences that have a lasting structural impact. Despite social, scientific, and cultural changes, gender discrimination remains prevalent in the twenty-first century. In this paper, we describe a situation in which a medical student was discouraged by a professor when she expressed the professional path she intended to pursue in the future just because of her gender. In addition, we discuss possible solutions such as raising awareness, developing educational programs, increasing women representation, and addressing everyone’s needs. It is imperative that we, as a society, educate ourselves in identifying stereotypes and gender-biased situations to eliminate gender discrimination in science and in our systems

Acculturation, Marianismo Gender Role, and Ambivalent Sexism in Predicting Depression in Latinas

This study explores acculturation, the Latina gender role of marianismo, and ambivalent sexism in predicting depression in a community sample of Latinas. A review of existing literature regarding these variables reveals that all three constructs can be both risk factors as well as protective factors. Since marianismo and ambivalent sexism may share similar traits, both may be self-protective coping mechanisms by Latinas in the context of a patriarchal environment with structured gender roles and strong gender disparities. One hundred and thirteen adult Latina participants from various ancestries of origin were solicited from the community using an Internet survey tool. Acculturation in this study was measured by the Bidimensional Acculturation Scale for Hispanics (BAS); marianismo by the Latina Values Scale-Revised (LVS-R); and ambivalent sexism by the Ambivalent Sexism Scale (ASI). The outcome variable, depression, was measured by the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES-D). Results showed that Latinas who endorsed higher hostile sexism tended to endorse higher benevolent sexism. Latinas who endorsed higher marianismo tended to endorse higher benevolent sexism. Further, Latinas who endorsed higher marianismo also tended to endorse higher overall ambivalent sexism (the sum of hostile and benevolent sexism). Finally, Latinas who endorsed higher marianismo tended to endorse higher satisfaction, or lower perception of conflicts, with their marianista traits. The correlation between acculturation and marianismo, acculturation and hostile sexism, acculturation and benevolent sexism, as well as marianismo and hostile sexism were all non-significant. Linear regression was conducted to examine whether acculturation, marianismo, hostile sexism and benevolent sexism predicted depression in Latinas. Results indicated a significant model – in particular, marianismo was a significant predictor of depression in Latinas. The other predictors failed to predict depression in Latinas. After controlling for demographic variables, the incremental regression model was non-significant. Despite the model’s overall non-significance, the predictor of age was found to be significant, that is, as age increased, depression tended to decrease. Finally, benevolent sexism was also found to be significant in the incremental regression model, that is, as benevolent sexism increased, depression tended to increase. Marianismo and the other predictors were not found to be significant in the final model. The limitations of the study were discussed, including a small sample size, higher socioeconomic status, as well as the use of an online data collection method. Clinical implications of the study included adding to the knowledge of multicultural competency in the field of psychology, specifically the importance of considering the impact of bicultural acculturation, gender role, clients’ perceived satisfaction with their gender role, as well as clients’ sexist experiences

Microwave design of multi-layer interposers for the packaging of photonic integrated circuits

The increasing growth of data traffic on the Internet is supported by innovations in high-speed photonic devices. Some of this novel photonic devices are photonic integrated circuits (PICs) that use higher speeds, have higher circuit density and integrate more heterogeneous devices. A new generation of photonic packaging is also required to handle the increasing device density and data rate of the PICs. An important element to package the PICs is the carrier board which also serves as an interposer between the PIC and the package. The usual interposer material for PICs is a single-layer aluminium nitride (AlN) substrate due to its high thermal conductivity and good microwave performance. In contrast, other high-speed and high-density applications use multi-layer substrates as carrier boards. The typical multi-layer technologies for high-speed interposers is low-temperature co-fired ceramic (LTCC). The motivation of this research is the need of multi-layer interposers suitable for the packaging of high-speed and high-density PICs. A key element to enable this multi-layer interposer is the high-speed channels. The task of this research was the microwave design of these high-speed channels for a multi-layer interposer and carrier board suitable for PICs. The main findings of this research can be divided into three areas. First, improvements to the microwave theory. A novel impedance profile reconstruction algorithm based on time-domain reflectometry (TDR) was developed. Additionally, a novel set of equations to calculate the characteristic impedance and the complex propagation constant from the vector network analyser (VNA) measurements of long lines was found and tested with positive results. Also, a novel single impedance thru-only de-embedding algorithm was completed. Second, the design of a novel rotatable vertical transition. The vertical transition has a 3 dB bandwidth around 35 GHz and small penalties on the eye diagram at 40 Gbit s−1 . Third, positive measured results of these designs in co-fired AlN. The measurements of the co-fired AlN board show similar results than in an LTCC board proving that co-fired AlN is an attractive option for PICs where the thermal management is important. The main conclusion from these findings is that the designed transmission lines and vertical transitions are suitable for the use of LTCC or of co-fired AlN as multi-layer interposers for the packaging of high-speed PICs Future work include improvements to the novel microwave algorithms, the development of equation-based models for the transmission lines. Also, the vertical transition has a resonance around 35 GHz that could be compensated using stubs or other elements. Finally, the transmission line designs and vertical transition designs need to be used for real applications of high-speed PICs using LTCC or co-fired AlN

New insight on the functions organization of the insula of Reil and the inner perisylvian regions: a multidisciplinary approach

The insula of Reil is a wide cortical region (~ 160mm² in rhesus monkey) buried in the depth of the sylvian fissure with an incomplete opercularization in non-human primates that reaches a complete opercularization only in the human brain. Researchers attributed to the insula and adjoining perisylvian regions in both monkeys and humans a very wide range of functions including autonomic and visceral functions, emotions, processing of various sensorial modalities (gustatory, olfactory, somatosensory, auditory). Based on these observations, the present research was undertaken in order to assess the eventual role of the insula and inner perisylvian regions in each of these functions. Two complementary approaches were combined: intracortical microstimulation in awake free behaving monkeys and anatomical connection study. The first study investigates the functional organization of the insula and inner perisylvian regions in macaque monkeys in order to assess a possible somatotopic organization. ICMS experiments were carried out on two awake free-moving rhesus monkeys (macaca mulatta). ICMS was performed with 50 Hz biphasic waves (0.2 msec of phase width) lasting from 50 msec up to 3 sec. Intensity was varied in a range up to 4 mA. During experiments, overt behavior and cardiac activity (ECG) evoked by ICMS have been monitored. The results showed that ICMS of inner perisylvian regions evokes a wide range of behavioral responses, which appeared to be roughly somatotopically arranged. In the rostral part a representation of oro-alimentary behaviour is present; responses like chewing, mouthing and deglutition prevail dorsally (frontal operculum and dorsal insula). In the ventral part (anterior ventral insula), strong viscero-motor responses (vomiting) are evoked. In the middle part (fronto-parietal operculum and middle dorsal insula), complex behaviours are evoked. In the dorsal caudal part (parietal operculum and posterior dorsal insula), simple motor responses involving distal and proximal effectors are evoked. Moreover, in the ventral intermediate sector of the insula, ICMS evoked communicative responses: the stimulations induced the monkey to lip-smack only when facing the experimenter. In the ventral insula and the lower bank, a miscellaneous of stereotyped and repetitive responses was also present. For what concerns the effects of ICMS on the autonomic system, a heart rate variability (HRV) analysis was carried out. The results showed different responses (bradycardia and tachycardia) along the rostro-caudal axis: bradycardia was evoked by stimulation of the rostral portion, showing an increase of the effect along the dorso-ventral axis. The posterior part of the studied regions showed a segregation of spots where stimulation induces bradycardia, tachycardia and no-effect. The present results show the involvement of inner perisylvian regions in the control of behavior as well as in the control of autonomic nervous system functions. Moreover, they show that such control obeys to a coarse somatotopically arranged segregation of functions within the explored regions. In the second experiment, we investigated the cortical and subcortical connections of the insular cortex. Three anatomical tracers were injected in three different sites where the functional properties were studied by mean of ICMS. On the one hand, the findings of this experiment are in agreement with what had been reported in the literature. The anterior insulo-orbital regions where oro-alimentary behaviours were evoked are connected with orbito-frontal areas (area 12, 11, 13 and 14), the rostral ventral prefrontal cortex (area 46), the precentral opercular area (PrCO), anterior cingulate areas (24b\c and 24a, 32), temporal pole, superior temporal pole (STP), inferior temporal gyrus (TEm, TEa\d), entorhinal cortex, baso-lateral amygdaloid nuclei, hypothalamus and ventral tegmental area (VTA). The ventral middle insula, where communicative responses were evoked, shows connections with areas 12r\m, 13l\m and 11 of the orbitofrontal cortex, area 45a of the prefrontal cortex, with area 44, area F5c of the premotor cortex, disgranular opercular area (DO), areas 24c and 24b of the cingulate cortex, temporal pole, TEa and TEm of the inferior temporal cortex, IPa and amygdala. Injection in the most medial part of SII, bordering with the posterior dorsal insula, where simple movement of lower limbs were evoked, is connected with area F3 of the premotor cortex, primary motor cortex, posterior cingulate areas (32, 24d, 23c), primary and secondary somatosensory areas, superior parietal cortex (PE, MIP) and inferior parietal lobule (AIP, PFop, PGop). On the other hand, these findings are in agreement with the functional properties of the injected sites, since the connected areas are functionally involved in different aspects of the behaviours evoked by ICMS performed in the injected loci. Taken together, the findings of these two experiments not only confirm a role of the insular cortex and the inner perisylvian regions in a wide range of behaviours and in the control of the autonomic functions, but also improve our understanding of the dynamics of the involvement of the stimulated regions within neural networks responsible of complex behaviours

Sombras y Proyecciones. Debajo de la máscara, búscate los ojos

Descripción de protocolo de investigación creación “Sombras y Proyecciones: Debajo de la máscara, búscate los ojos” a partir de los conceptos de la sombra y la proyección de acuerdo con la definición de Carl Jung

Shaking B mediates synaptic coupling between auditory sensory neurons and the giant fiber of drosophila melanogaster

The Johnston’s Organ neurons (JONs) form chemical and electrical synapses onto the giant fiber neuron (GF), as part of the neuronal circuit that mediates the GF escape response in Drosophila melanogaster. The purpose of this study was to identify which of the 8 Drosophila innexins (invertebrate gap junction proteins) mediates the electrical connection at this synapse. The GF is known to express Shaking B (ShakB), specifically the ShakB(N+16) isoform only, at its output synapses in the thorax. The shakB2 mutation disrupts these GF outputs and also abolishes JON-GF synaptic transmission. However, the identity of the innexin that forms the presynaptic hemichannels in the JONs remains unknown. We used electrophysiology, immunocytochemistry and dye injection, along with presynaptically-driven RNA interference, to investigate this question. The amplitude of the compound action potential recorded in response to sound from the base of the antenna (sound-evoked potential, or SEP) was reduced by RNAi of the innexins Ogre, Inx3, Inx6 and, to a lesser extent Inx2, suggesting that they could be required in JONs for proper development, excitability, or synchronization of action potentials. The strength of the JON-GF connection itself was reduced to background levels only by RNAi of shakB, not of the other seven innexins. ShakB knockdown prevented Neurobiotin coupling between GF and JONs and removed the plaques of ShakB protein immunoreactivity that are present at the region of contact. Specific shakB RNAi lines that are predicted to target the ShakB(L) or ShakB(N) isoforms alone did not reduce the synaptic strength, implying that it is ShakB(N+16) that is required in the presynaptic neurons. Overexpression of ShakB(N+16) in JONs caused the formation of ectopic dye coupling, whereas ShakB(N) prevented it altogether, supporting this conclusion and also suggesting that gap junction proteins may have an instructive role in synaptic target choice

Responses of mirror neurons in area F5 to hand and tool grasping observation

Mirror neurons are a distinct class of neurons that discharge both during the execution of a motor act and during observation of the same or similar motor act performed by another individual. However, the extent to which mirror neurons coding a motor act with a specific goal (e.g., grasping) might also respond to the observation of a motor act having the same goal, but achieved with artificial effectors, is not yet established. In the present study, we addressed this issue by recording mirror neurons from the ventral premotor cortex (area F5) of two monkeys trained to grasp objects with pliers. Neuron activity was recorded during the observation and execution of grasping performed with the hand, with pliers and during observation of an experimenter spearing food with a stick. The results showed that virtually all neurons responding to the observation of hand grasping also responded to the observation of grasping with pliers and, many of them to the observation of spearing with a stick. However, the intensity and pattern of the response differed among conditions. Hand grasping observation determined the earliest and the strongest discharge, while pliers grasping and spearing observation triggered weaker responses at longer latencies. We conclude that F5 grasping mirror neurons respond to the observation of a family of stimuli leading to the same goal. However, the response pattern depends upon the similarity between the observed motor act and the one executed by the hand, the natural motor template

A high-speed vertical transition for multi-layer A1N carrier boards designed by time-domain reflectometry

High density, high speed photonic integrated circuits (PICs) have large numbers of closely spaced DC and RF contacts, which must be connected in the package. The use of multilayer carrier boards to interface between the contacts and the package gives high performance and high density. In order to be effective as a packaging solution, these multi-layer carrier boards need high-speed electrical channels with good performance. Also, the boards usually need high thermal conductivity to manage the heat. Co-fired aluminium nitride (A1N) has the needed high thermal conductivity. However, there are no designs of multi-layer high-speed channels in the literature for co-fired A1N. Therefore, this article presents a high-speed multi-layer channel for co-fired A1N and its measured results. Two transmission lines were designed that showed a measured loss of Ë 0.09dBmm-1 at 40GHz. The vertical transition allows for arbitrary planar rotations of the channel and showed a measured 3 dB bandwidth of 33 GHz and small penalties in the eye diagram with a 44 Gbits-1 signal. The channels showed crosstalk below -30 dB