Appendix C. A table showing ANOVA results for ecosystem respiration, primary production, and sedimentation.

A table showing ANOVA results for ecosystem respiration, primary production, and sedimentation

Appendix D. A table showing the occurrence of five snail species in a survey of 16 ponds in southwest Michigan.

A table showing the occurrence of five snail species in a survey of 16 ponds in southwest Michigan

Appendix B. A table showing ANOVA results for algal biomass (periphyton, epiphyton, and metaphyton) and macrophyte (stem growth and biomass).

A table showing ANOVA results for algal biomass (periphyton, epiphyton, and metaphyton) and macrophyte (stem growth and biomass)

Appendix A. A table showing ANOVA results for snail production and standing biomass.

A table showing ANOVA results for snail production and standing biomass

Tadpole morphology

Morphological measurements of Agalychnis callidryas tadpoles reared in one of 5 predator treatments in Gamboa, Panama. Column headings are: Block of experiment, Tank tadpoles came from, Predator treatment, Hatching age treatment, Individual tadpole from each tank, Body length, Total tadpole length, Tail muscle height, Tail fin height, Body height, Max body height, and Body area

Data from: Plastic hatching timing by red-eyed treefrog embryos interacts with larval predator identity and sublethal predation to affect prey morphology but not performance

Many animals respond to predation risk by altering their morphology, behavior, or life-history. We know a great deal about the cues prey respond to and the changes to prey that can be induced by predation risk, but less is known about how plastic responses to predators may be affected by separate plastic responses occurring earlier in life, particularly during the embryonic period. Embryos of a broad array of taxa can respond to egg- or larval-stage risks by altering hatching timing, which may alter the way organisms respond to future predators. Using the red-eyed treefrog (Agalychnis callidryas), a model for understanding the effects of plasticity across life-stages, we assessed how the combined effects of induced variation in the timing of embryo hatching and variation in the larval predator community impacted tadpole morphology, pigmentation and swimming performance. We found that A. callidryas tadpoles developed deeper tail muscles and fins and darker pigmentation in response to fish predators, either when alone or in diverse community with other predators. Tadpoles altered morphology much less so to dragonfly naiads or water bugs. Interestingly, morphological responses to predators were also affected by induced differences in hatching age, with early and late-hatched tadpoles exhibiting different allometric relationships between tail height and body length in different predator environments. Beyond induced morphological changes, fish predators often damaged tadpoles’ tails without killing them (i.e., sublethal predation), but these tadpoles swam equally quickly to those with fully intact tails. This was due to the fact that tadpoles with more damaged tails increased tail beats to achieve equal swimming speed. This study demonstrates that plastic phenotypic responses to predation risk can be influenced by a complex combination of responses to both the embryo and larval environments, but also that prey performance can be highly resilient to sublethal predation

Tadpole swimming

Agalychnis callidryas swimming performance after being raised with different predators in Gamboa, Panama. Column headings are: Distance tadpole swam (cm), Number of tadpole, Number of swims (values may be averages of multiple swims), Number of frames swam, Number of tailbeats used, Rate of tailbeats per second, Speed of tadpoles (cm traveled/second), Total amount of time swimming, Number of tailbeats used per cm traveled, Predator treatment, Hatching age treatment, Block of experiment, Tank of experiment

Tadpole swimming performance was affected by body size.

<p><i>Agalychnis callidryas</i> tadpole (a) swimming speed increased with body length, whereas (b) the number of beats per centimeter of distance swam decreased with body length. Neither aspect of swimming was affected by predator treatments.</p