In Memoriam Professor Krzysztof Ludwik Birkenmajer (1929–2019) an outstanding Polish geologist and polar researcher

"The community of polar researchers and explorers is saddened by the death of Professor Krzysztof Birkenmajer, who passed away on 23rd February 2019 after a short illness. He was 90 years old at his passing and had led a long and productive life, leaving a legacy that is captured in his many scientific contributions." […] (fragm.

Classification and morphometric features of glaciers in the Hornsund surroundings, Spitsbergen

Systematic characteristics of glaciers in the Hornsund region are presented. Drainage basins limits were distinguished in southern Spitsbergen and 41 glaciers were classified by a morphological type as well as by thermics zones of ice and glacier dynamics. The glacial basin of Hornsund Fiord were delimited and some elements of morphometry for 28 glaciers of this basin were analysed. The glaciers of the Hornsund region were compared with glaciers of other Spitsbergen regions

Dynamiczne procesy glacjalne na południowym Spitzbergenie : w świetle badań fotointerpretacyjnych i fotogrametrycznych

This monograph presents results of research carried out using terrestrial photogrammetry over the period 1982—1985 and photointerpretation of aerial pictures taken in 1936, 1960 and 1961. Archival topographic maps and photogrammetric surveys have also been used. The state of the glaciers in South Spitsbergen has been examined (chapter 3). The analysis includes morphological type (tab. 1) and morphometric features (tab. 2). Based upon aerial photos taken in 1961 (fig. 7) the glacial zones, thermal regime have distinctly reduced volume over the period 1936—1961 (chapter 4, tab. 3). The diagram of changes in glacier thickness with the altitude shows the existence of kinematic waves (fig. 20—24), which in the case of Finsterwalderbreen, are the result of a surge. Werenskioldbreen, which terminates on land (chapter 5), and a grounded tidewater glacier Hansbreen (chapter 6) have been taken as examples to investigate glacier movement. A close relation between surface velocity and the amount of melt water flowing to the glacier bed (fig. 40—42) is observed. It supports the important role of basal slip for the glaciers of Spitsbergen. Maximum flow velocity is observed in mid-July, the first part of the ablation season (fig. 44 and 45). For land-terminated glaciers internal deformation is the dominant flow mechanism, accounting for more than 60% of the mean annual flow. Basal sliding decreases near the front. In the case of tidewater glaciers, basal sliding increases toward the front (at the terminus of Hansbreen 95% of surface velocity results from basal slip). Compressional flow dominates in the frontal part of glaciers terminated on land. Near the front of Werenskioldbreen, velocity vectors are emergent and velocity decreases gradually toward to the terminus. Current dynamics of Werenskioldbreen resemble the quiescent phase of a surging glacier. Movement of the frontal part of tidewater glaciers is tensional. Directions of Hansbreen flow vectors projected on a vertical plane are parallel to the surface and only close to the terminal cliff do they dip seaward. In this work special attention is paid to ablation by calving of tidewater glaciers (chapter 6). An annual cycle of Hansbreen calving activity and the relations between calving and glacier seismicity have been examined. The mechanism of calving of the Spitsbergen grounded tidewater glaciers resembles landslide slumps. Calving results from tensional movement with postive feedback such as the „Jakobshavn effect (Hughes, 1986) accelerating the movement. Underwater melting has also been calculated; it is responsible for about 20% of calving speed. Data from Hansbreen (Jani a, 1982, 1986, 1987b), Kongsvegen (Voigt. 1979), Alaska tidewater glaciers (Bro w n and others, 1982, table 1) make it possible to formulate a „gentral calving law”: Vc = k+f(V9) where calving speed Vc is a function of glacier velocity V9; a calving coefficient k depends on climatic conditions. Preliminary results suggest that the function f(V9) is linear. For tidewater glaciers on Spitsbergen, calving typically accounts for 25% of the mass loss. Fluctuations of the fronts of the South Spitsbergen glaciers have also been investigated (chapter 7). Recession rates of tidewater glaciers depend mainly on the sea depth at the glacier terminus. Since the beginning of this century the surface of the Hornsund tidewater glaciers has decreased by 88 km2, yielding a mean deglaciation rate exceeding 1 km2 per year. Analysis of surface features of the glaciers of South Spitsbergen proves that most of them are of surge type (chapter 8, phot. 14—20). Observations of the dynamics and geometry changes of Spisbergen glaciers together with recent results from Alaska (K a m b and others, 1986) and the Alps (I k e n and Bindschadler, 1986) suggest that the superposition of kinematic waves at different scales can trigger a surge. The importance of changes in the subglacial drainage structure has been taken into account. A simplified model of surge-type glacier evolution caused by climate warming (decreasing glacier volume and increasing melt water flow to the bed) is also presented (fig. 63). Some gemorphological consequences of the dynamics of contemporary glaciers have been considered (chapter 9). Formation of ice-cored frontal moraines and push moraines must be treated as an effect of rapid glacier movement typical of the active phase of surging. Seasonal oscillations of the terminal position of tidewater glaciers cause annual push moraine ridges that the a typical feature formed during the quiescent phase of surging. For the marine environment, the active phase is associated with superimosed push glacial-marine deposits of great thickness. In the final part of this monograph the usefulness of photo-methods in glaciology is evaluated. Lastly, the intensity of glacial processes in South Spitsbergen is compared with that in other Arctic and Subarctic areas

Ablation by calving and 20th century recession of glaciers in the Hornsund area (Spitsbergen). Preliminary results

The paper presents calculations of the ice mass losses caused by calving of the Hans Glacier. Ablation by calving takes about 20 percent of total annual mass losses of the Hans Glacier. Observations of glaciers retreat in the Hornsund region point out that fast recession takes place in part of glacier where flow velocity is high. The author discusses also question of the ice cored moraines developed as result of glaciers snout retreat from sea to land

Antropogeniczne zmiany rzeźby terenu wschodniej części Wyżyny Śląskiej

An examination of the antropogenization of the land morphological surface covered the eastern part of the Silesian Upland. The region, characterized by a typically structural relief, was subjected to an analysis of the antropogenical forms against the background of a natural landscape. The photointerpretation of aerial material served as a fundamental mapping method, applied to antropogenical forms, as well as a methodi of the natural (primary) morphological surface mapping and its reproducing. Panchromatic photographs taken on the 27th August, 1973 in the scale of 1 :20.500 were used. Thorough interpretation of these photographs provided possibilities to draw up a detailed map of antropogenical relief in 1 : 25.000 scale and to make a geomorphological sketch of natural relief in the same scale, both covering an area of about 260 square km. These mappings were used as a basis for the comparative spatial analysis of the land of both types; the field network of 1 square km fundamental area was applied. The comparative action showed the interrelation between the occurence of depressed land forms, brought about by a man, and those structural by their nature. Elevations built of carbonate rocks appeared to be more resistant to relief changes caused by a man. It would suggest that human actions in landscape cycle despite of powerful technical aid, are subjected to primary lithological and geomorphological conditions. This assumption has been confirmed by observations made at the entire Silesian Upland. It was found out that main excavation sites corresponded to structural depressions and major agglomerations of antropogenical landforms were clustered in these depressions. This observation provides ground for further examination of the structural nature of antropogenical relief. Estimation of the excavation volume, made on the base of aerial imagery and completed with data obtained form Mining Ministry allowed to define the intensity of earth material removal from the Czarna Przemsza catchment. Propositional index of the mechanical antropogenical denundation was calculated, and it reached 17.000 cubic m/square km per 1 year. It proves that in the eastern part of the Silesian Upland antropogenical landscape cycle is still in progress

Fluctuations of tidewater glaciers in Hornsund Fjord (Southern Svalbard) since the beginning of the 20th century

Significant retreat of glaciers terminating in Hornsund Fjord (Southern Spitsbergen, Svalbard) has been observed during the 20th century and in the first decade of the 21st century. The objective of this paper is to present, as complete as possible, a record of front positions changes of 14 tidewater glaciers during this period and to distinguish the main factors influencing their fluctuations. Results are based on a GIS analysis of archival maps, field measurements, and aerial and satellite images. Accuracy was based on an assessment of seasonal fluctuations of a glacier's ice cliff position with respect to its minimum length in winter (November-December) and its maximum advance position in June or July.Morphometric features and the environmental setting of each glacier are also presented. The total area of the glacier cover in Hornsund Fjord in the period of 1899-2010 diminished approximately 172 km2, with an average areal retreat rate of 1.6 km2a-1. The recession rate increased from ~1 km2a-1 in first decades of the 20th century up to ~3 km2a-1 in years 2001-2010. The latest period was more thoroughly studied using optical satellite images acquired almost every year. The importance of glacier morphology and hypsometry, as well as fjord bathymetry and topography is analyzed. Large glacier systemswith low slopes terminating in deeper waters are retreating faster than small steep glaciers terminating in shallower water. A relation between mean annual air temperature and aerial retreat rate of tidewater glaciers was found for long time scales. A sudden temperature increase, known as the early 20th century warming in Svalbard, and an increase in temperatures during recent decades are well reflected in deglaciation rate. Influence of sea water temperatures on calving and retreat of glaciers was considered and is significant in short-time intervals of the last decade. Surge events are non-climatic factors which complicate the record. They are reflected in front advance or fast retreat due to a massive calving depending on the relation between ice thickness and water depth. Despite the influence of many factors, the response of tidewater glaciers to climate change is evident. The average linear retreat rate of all the tidewater glaciers in Hornsund amounted to ~70 ma-1 in 2001-2010 and was higher than the average retreat of other Svalbard tidewater glaciers (~45 ma-1). Thus, glaciers of this basin can be considered as more sensitive to climate than glaciers of other regions of the archipelago

Review article A. B. Dobrowolski - the first cryospheric scientist - and the subsequent development of cryospheric science

The origin of the term "cryosphere" has been traced to the Polish scientist A. B. Dobrowolski in his 1923 book on "The Natural History of Ice" written in Polish. This note commemorates his little recognized contribution to the science, outside of his native country, and summarizes the recent organization of cryospheric research

Role of discrete water recharge from supraglacial drainage systems in modeling patterns of subglacial conduits in Svalbard glaciers

As the behavior of subglacial water plays a determining role in glacier dynamics, it requires particular attention, especially in the context of climate warming, which is increasing ablation and generating greater amounts of meltwater. On many glaciers, water flowing from the glacier’s surface is the main source of supply to the subglacial drainage system. This system is largely influenced by the supraglacial drainage system, which collects meltwater and precipitation and rapidly delivers it to discrete points in the glacier bed via moulins and crevassed areas, called water input areas (WIAs). Models of patterns of subglacial conduits mainly based on the hydrological potential gradient are still regularly performed without taking into account the supraglacial drainage system. We modeled the pattern of subglacial channels in two glaciers located in Svalbard, the land-terminating Werenskioldbreen and the tidewater Hansbreen during the 2015 melt season.We modeled a spatial and a discrete water recharge in order to compare them. First, supraglacial catchments were determined for each WIA on a high-resolution digital elevation model using the standard watershed modeling tool in ArcGIS. Then, interpolated water runoff was calculated for all the main WIAs. Our model also accounts for several water pressure conditions. For our two studied glaciers, during the ablation season 2015, 72.5% of total runoff was provided by meltwater and 27.5% by precipitation. Changes in supraglacial drainage on a decadal timescale are observed in contrast to its nearly stable state on an annual timescale. Nevertheless, due to the specific nature of those changes, it seems to have a low impact on the subglacial system. Therefore, our models of subglacial channel are assumed to be valid for a minimum period of two decades and depend on changes in the supraglacial drainage system. Results showed that, for Svalbard tidewater glaciers with large crevassed areas, models of subglacial channels that assume spatial water recharge may be somewhat imprecise but are far from being completely incorrect, especially for the ablation zone. On the other hand, it is important to take discrete water recharge into account in the case of landterminating Svalbard glaciers with limited crevassed areas. In all cases, considering a discrete water recharge when modeling patterns of theoretical subglacial channels seems to produce more realistic results according to current knowledge

Distribution of snow accumulation on some glaciers of Spitsbergen

We describe the spatial variability of snow accumulation on three selected gla− ciers in Spitsbergen (Hansbreen, Werenskioldbreen and Aavatsmarkbreen) in the winter seasons of 1988/89, 1998/99 and 2001/2002 respectively. The distribution of snow cover is determined by the interrelationships between the direction of the glacier axes and the domi− nant easterly winds. The snow distribution is regular on the glaciers located E−W, but is more complicated on the glaciers located meridionally. The western part of glaciers is more predisposed to the snow accumulation than the eastern. This is due to snowdrift intensity. Statistical relationships between snow accumulation, deviation of accumulation from the mean values and accumulation variability related to topographic parameters such as: alti− tude, slope inclination, aspect, slope curvature and distance from the edge of the glacier have been determined. The only significant relations occured between snow accumulation and altitude (r = 0.64–0.91)

Glacier facies of Vestfonna (Svalbard) based on SAR images and GPR measurements

The warming climate of the Arctic affects the mass budget of glaciers, and changes in the distribution of glacier facies are indicative of their response to climate change. The glacial mass budget over large land ice masses can be estimated by remote sensing techniques, but selecting an efficient remote sensing method for recognizing and mapping glacier facies in the Arctic remains a challenge. In this study, we compared several methods of distinguishing the facies of the Vestfonna ice cap, Svalbard, based upon Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) images and terrestrial high frequency Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) measurements. Glacier zones as determined using the backscattering coefficient (sigma0) of SAR images were compared against GPR data, and an alternative application of Internal Reflection Energy (IRE) calculated from terrestrial GPR data was also used for differentiating the extent of glacier facies. The IRE coefficient was found to offer a suitable method for distinguishing glacier zones and for validating SAR analysis. Furthermore, results of analysis of fully polarimetric Phased Array type Lband Synthetic Aperture Radar (ALOS PALSAR) and European Remote Sensing Synthetic Aperture Radar (ERS-2 SAR) images were compared with the IRE coefficient classification. Especially promising method is H-α segmentation, where the glacier zone boundaries corresponded very well with both GPR visual interpretation and IRE classification results. The IRE coefficient's simplicity of calculation makes it a good alternative to the subjective GPR visual interpretation method, where results strongly depend on the operator's level of experience. We therefore recommend for GPR profiles to be used for additional validation of SAR image analysis in studies of glacier facies on the High Arctic ice masses