Ilegalne migracije i krijumčarenje ljudima u Srednjoj i Istočnoj Europi

The analytical and statistical services of border management organizations in Central and Eastern European countries have registered and accumulated a vast body of knowledge on the demographics and mechanisms of illegal migration over the last one-and-a-half decade. This paper attempts to tap this resource by summarising the results of a yearly survey among border guards of 17 countries. A set of quantitative indicators of illegal migration is developed, presented and interpreted, based on the answers of the border services to a series of quantitative and qualitative questions. This empirical material is used to evaluate the dynamics and pattern of illegal migration in Central and Eastern Europe on the one hand, and to examine the development of border management strategies on the other. The impacts of legal and institutional reforms are investigated in light of the temporal and spatial variations of border apprehension statistics. The interdependence of the two processes is reviewed from the point of view of national border management authorities, perhaps the most authoritative source of information on the issue. The results of the authors’ annual survey indicate that the progressive development of migration control mechanisms at national and international levels seems to have a significant impact on irregular migration flows as most indicators of illegal migration have significantly decreased after the turn of the century. At the same time, the geographical distribution of illegal migration flows in Central and Eastern European countries has become more complex over the years.Analitičke i statističke službe graničnih kontrola u zemljama Srednje i Istočne Europe zapisale su i skupile veliko znanje iz demografije i mehanizama ilegalne migracije tijekom posljednjih petnaest godina. U radu se pokušava iskoristiti taj izvor sumiranjem rezultata godišnjeg pregleda koji su obavili graničari sedamnaest zemalja. Razvijen je set kvantitativnih indikatora ilegalnih migracija koji se prikazuje i interpretira na temelju odgovora graničnih službi na niz kvantitativnih i kvalitativnih pitanja. Empirijski materijal je, s jedne strane, upotrijebljen za procjenu dinamike i uzoraka ilegalne migracije u Srednjoj i Istočnoj Europi, a s druge za ispitivanje razvoja strategija upravljanja granicom. Djelovanje pravnih i institucionalnih reforma ispituje se u svjetlu vremenskih i prostornih varijacija statistika uhićenja na granici. Međuzavisnost tih dvaju procesa promatra se s gledišta nacionalnih graničnih organa upravljanja koji su možda najmjerodavniji izvor informacija. Rezultati godišnjeg pregleda koji su sačinili autori pokazuju da, kako se čini, progresivni razvoj kontrolnih mehanizama migracije na nacionalnoj i međunarodnoj razini značajno utječe na neregularne migracijske tokove budući da je većina pokazatelja ilegalne migracije značajno smanjena na početku ovog stoljeća. Istodobno, geografska distribucija ilegalnih migracijskih tokova u Srednjoj i Istočnoj Europi postala je složenija tijekom godina

Towards the Monitoring of Goal 16 of the United Nations' Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs): A Study of the Selection, Rationale and Validity of Indicators with Suggestions for Further Improvements

Over the past half-decade, the United Nations has engaged in an unprecedented global, participatory and inclusive consultation process that lead to the definition and adoption of a new set of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) as a successor to the earlier Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). After literally hundreds of global, regional and national consultation meetings and countless written submissions and online consultations with inputs from national institutions, civil society organizations, academia, regional and international organizations and the departments and agencies of the UN system debating the merits of a multitude of competing objectives, representatives from UN Member States in a series of intergovernmental negotiations agreed on a common and universal set of goals and targets for the period 2015-2030. This study looks into the process and substance of the debate, based on a review of written sources, interviews with a number of experts involved in the development of the goals, targets and indicators, and inputs from written questionnaires, with a view to learn more about the strengths and weaknesses of the process and its outcomes.The focus of this study is on the development of the global indicator framework for SDG 16, and in particular on indicators relating to rule of law, access to justice and corruption. While there are a number of critical points to be raised about the content and formulation of SDG 16 and its targets, many of which are reviewed in this study, there is a broad consensus among many commentators, as well as the experts interviewed, that the inclusion of a goal on peace, justice and institutions, with a broad number of targets, is a historic achievement by itself and that, generally, the targets within SDG 16 are comprehensive, meaningful and well balanced.This study also shows that both the strengths and many of the shortcomings of the selection and formulation of the targets are linked to the nature of the SDG adoption process as such. For instance, the sheer number of stakeholders involved in the process, while insuring comprehensive coverage of worthy objectives for a global agenda, also contributed to the inflation of the number of goals and targets, whereas the original intention had been to keep them fairly limited. And because the number of targets had to be limited at some point in the process, the push and shove to have additional concerns reflected in the targets that were already agreed to has led to some convoluted formulations that packed multiple objectives and different concepts into one single target. A prime example of enrolling multidimensional concepts into one single target is 16.3, which now covers a range of worthwhile objectives related to the rule of law and access to justice but was originally conceived of as a goal in itself with several associated targets.Once it became clearer that the SDGs will have a goal on peace, justice and security and the outlines of the related targets became visible, work on the indicators for SDG 16 intensified. A large part of this study details the proposal, discussion and selection of alternative indicators for the targets under SDG 16 and discusses the strengths and weaknesses of the resulting indicator framework that was provisionally adopted by the UN Statistical Commission in March 2016. Again, there is a broad consensus among the experts interviewed for this study that the indicators for SDG 16 generally do a reasonably good job of covering the targets they are supposed to measure. While there are good reasons to agree with this assessment, three areas of concern should be highlighted.First, the adoption of some broad, multi-dimensional targets under SDG 16 creates a dilemma for the monitoring of the target when the number of indicators is too limited. For instance, there is no possible combination of only one or two indicators that can cover all aspects of target 16.3 on rule of law and access to justice. Second, issues of data availability and the concerns of many (often smaller or developing) countries about their capacity to measure complex indicators through large-scale and expensive population surveys have already led to the restriction of survey-based sources in favour of administrative sources. However, many issues related to peace, justice and institutions can be appropriately captured only through survey-based measurement. During implementation of the indicator framework, issues of capacity-building and data availability in developing countries should therefore be given high priority in order to avoid large data gaps. Third, in order to monitor progress towards the high aspirations of the Agenda 2030, and in particular on the central theme that "no one will be left behind", special attention should be paid to the capacity to collect data that are disaggregated by various relevant dimensions such as sex, age, income, ethnicity or other relevant disadvantages, both in survey-based data and administrative data sources.Despite these and other concerns raised in the study, the quantitative analysis of available data on selected targets under SDG 16 provides some evidence that the chosen indicators for targets 16.3 (rule of law and access to justice) and 16.5 (corruption) do, in fact, contribute to the measurement of the underlying concepts of the targets. A further refinement of the indicators, along the lines suggested in this study, as well as an improvement of the data sources for the indicators will further enhance that ability to measure progress towards the targets at the national, regional and global levels.In addition to providing an in-depth analysis of the long and complex process of developing an appropriate set of goals, targets and indicators for SDG 16, this study also provides two sets of proposals for the short- and medium-term future: 1. A set of proposals for the refinement of indicators on targets 16.3 and 16.5 that can be adopted already in the near future by the Inter-Agency and Expert Group on SDG indicators. These proposals include the splitting of indicator 16.3.1 into two survey-based indicators relating to criminal justice and civil justice, respectively; further disaggregation of indicator 16.3.2 by length of unsentenced detention; and refinements of the formulation of the indicators on the prevalence of bribery by the population (16.5.1) and businesses (16.5.2). 2. A set of proposals for the elaboration of additional indicators used for monitoring SDG targets at the regional level. Regional indicators are currently under discussion by various intergovernmental bodies and regional processes in Africa, the Americas and Europe. This study has compiled a list of potential indicators for regional monitoring of targets 16.3 and 16.5 and has further collected inputs and regional priorities from the research institutes of the United Nations Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice Programme Network that are reproduced here. It is hoped that the study can be of wide use for practitioners and scholars interested in the development of appropriate metrics for the monitoring of the SDGs.In parallel with the negotiations on the goals and targets, there was a broad-based consultative process on the development of the indicators to monitor the targets. This is no trivial task for any of the goals and targets, but the development of an appropriate indicator framework was particularly important for SDG 16 in order to demonstrate early on in the debate on the post-2015 development agenda that issues of peace, justice and institutions are an integral part of the development agenda and that they are, in fact, measurable. A broad-based effort by UN agencies, selected Member States, civil society organizations, academia and other stakeholders drove the point home. Similar to the development process of the SDGs themselves, a broad participatory approach with multiple stakeholders was adopted for the elaboration of the indicator framework, resulting in a process that often complicated the difficult technical task of selecting suitable indicators by confounding them with non-technical considerations of a political nature

Migration and irregular work in Austria: a case study of the structure and dynamics of irregular foreign employment in Europe at the beginning of the 21st Century

This meticulously researched study of irregular migrant work in Austria holds many broader lessons for countries all over Europe. The book derives many of its fascinating insights from systematic in-depth interviews with migrants themselves. The authors demonstrate that it is no longer enough to divide the world of foreign employment into "legal" and "illegal" work. Instead, over the past few years, particularly in the context of progressive EU-enlargement in Europe, new manifestations of "irregular migrant work" have evolved. Moreover, the authors convincingly argue that irregular migrant work is based on both supply and demand, and is therefore unlikely to fade away in the foreseeable future.Dit nauwkeurig onderzoek over onregelmatig migrantenarbeid (ook wel illegale arbeidscircuit genoemd) behandelt een gedetailleerde studie over Oostenrijk, waarvan de uitkomst leerzaam kan zijn voor alle Europese landen. Het boek heeft veel van de verkregen inzichten uit diepte-interviews met illegale arbeiders zelf. Gebaseerd op deze informatie demonstreren de auteurs dat het niet toerijkend is om de wereld in te delen in 'legale' en 'illegale' arbeid. Vanaf de laatste jaren, met name in de context van de EU-uitbreiding, zijn nieuwe vormen van 'illegale arbeid' ontstaan. Dit boek toont overtuigend aan dat illegale arbeid is gebaseerd op zowel de vraag en de aanbod-kant van de markt, welke diep geworteld zit in onze westerse economische structuur. Het is vooral daarom onwaarschijnlijk dat de illegale arbeid in de nabije toekomst zal verdwijnen

The mechanism of formation, structure and physiological relevance of covalent hemoglobin attachment to the erythrocyte membrane

Covalent hemoglobin binding to membranes leads to band 3 (AE1) clustering and the removal of erythrocytes from the circulation; it is also implicated in blood storage lesions. Damaged hemoglobin, with the heme being in a redox and oxygen-binding inactive hemichrome form, has been implicated as the binding species. However, previous studies used strong non-physiological oxidants. In vivo hemoglobin is constantly being oxidised to methemoglobin (ferric), with around 1% of hemoglobin being in this form at any one time. In this study we tested the ability of the natural oxidised form of hemoglobin (methemoglobin) in the presence or absence of the physiological oxidant hydrogen peroxide to initiate membrane binding. The higher the oxidation state of hemoglobin (from Fe(III) to Fe(V)) the more binding was observed, with approximately 50% of this binding requiring reactive sulphydryl groups. The hemoglobin bound was in a high molecular weight complex containing spectrin, ankyrin and band 4.2, which are common to one of the cytoskeletal nodes. Unusually, we showed that hemoglobin bound in this way was redox active and capable of ligand binding. It can initiate lipid peroxidation showing the potential to cause cell damage. In vivo oxidative stress studies using extreme endurance exercise challenges showed an increase in hemoglobin membrane binding, especially in older cells with lower levels of antioxidant enzymes. These are then targeted for destruction. We propose a model where mild oxidative stress initiates the binding of redox active hemoglobin to the membrane. The maximum lifetime of the erythrocyte is thus governed by the redox activity of the cell; from the moment of its release into the circulation the timer is set

Root trenching: a useful tool to estimate autotrophic soil respiration? A case study in an Austrian mountain forest

We conducted a trenching experiment in a mountain forest in order to assess the contribution of theautotrophic respiration to total soil respiration and evaluate trenching as a technique to achieve it. We hypothesised that the trenching experiment would alter both microbial biomass and microbial community structure and that Wne roots (less than 2 mm diameter) would be decomposed within one growing season. Soil CO2 eZux was measured roughlybiweekly over two growing seasons. Root presence and morphology parameters, as well as the soil microbial community were measured prior to trenching, 5 and 15 months after trenching. The trenched plots emitted about 20 and 30% less CO2 than the control plots in the Wrst and secondgrowing season, respectively. Roots died in trenched plots, but root decay was slow. After 5 and 15 months, Wne root biomass was decreased by 9% (not statistically diferent)and 30%, (statistically diVerent) respectively. When wecorrected for the additional trenched-plot CO2 eZux due to Wne root decomposition, the autotrophic soil respiration rose to »26% of the total soil respiration for the Wrst growing season, and to »44% for the second growing season.Soil microbial biomass and community structure was not altered by the end of the second growing season. We conclude that trenching can give accurate estimates of the autotrophic and heterotrophic components of soil respiration, ifmethodological side eVects are accounted for, only

PHAryngeal electrical STimulation for early decannulation in TRACheotomised stroke patients with neurogenic dysphagia (PHAST-TRAC): a prospective randomised single-blinded trial

Background Dysphagia after stroke is common, especially in severely affected, tracheotomised patients. In a pilot trial, pharyngeal electrical stimulation (PES) improved swallowing function in this group of patients. The PHAryngeal electrical STimulation for early decannulation in TRACheotomised stroke patients with neurogenic dysphagia trial (PHAST-TRAC) was designed to replicate and extend this single-centre experience. Methods Patients with recent stroke who required tracheotomy were randomised to receive three days of PES or sham. All patients had the stimulation catheter inserted; sham treatment was applied by connecting the base station to a simulator box instead of the catheter. Randomisation was done via a computerised interactive system with randomisation (stratified by site) in blocks of 4 patients per site. Patients and investigators applying PES were not masked. The primary-endpoint was assessed blinded to treatment assignment by a separate investigator at each site. The primary outcome was readiness for decannulation 24-72 hours post-treatment, assessed using fiberoptic endoscopic evaluation of swallowing and based on a standardised protocol including absence of massive saliva, presence of spontaneous swallows and laryngeal sensation. We planned a sequential statistical analysis of superiority for the primary endpoint. Interim analyses were to be performed after primary outcome data were available for 50 patients (futility), 70 patients, and every additional 10 patients thereafter up to 140. Analysis was by intention-to-treat. The trial was registered as ISRCTN18137204. Findings From 29th May 2015 to 5th July 2017, 69 patients (PES 35, sham 34) from 9 sites (7 acute care hospitals, 2 rehabilitation facilities) in Germany, Austria and Italy were included: PES group mean age 61.7 (SD 13.0) years, 8 (23%) patients with haemorrhagic stroke, median time onset to randomisation 28.0 [IQR 20, 49] days; sham group age 66.8 (10.3) years, 12 (35%) patients with haemorrhagic stroke, onset to randomisation 28.0 [18, 40] days). The Independent Data & Safety Monitoring Board recommended to stop the trial early for efficacy after 70 patients had been recruited and primary endpoint data of 69 patients were available. This decision was approved by the steering committee. PES was associated with more patients being ready for decannulation as compared to sham: 17 (49%) vs. 3 (9%), odds ratio (OR) 7.00 (2.41-19.88), p=0.00082). No patient required recannulation within 48 hours or during their documented follow-up period up to 30 days or hospital discharge. Adverse events (AEs) were reported in 24 patients (69%) of the PES group and 24 patients (71%) of the sham group. The number of patients with at least one serious adverse event (SAE) did not differ between the groups: 10 (29%) vs. 8 (23%), OR 1.3 (0.44-3.83), p=0.7851). 7 patients (20%) from the PES group and 3 patients (9%) from the sham group died during the study period. None of the patient deaths or SAEs reported were judged to be PES-treatment- or investigational device-related. Interpretation PES increased the proportion of patients with stroke and subsequent tracheotomy who were ready for decannulation in this study population, many of whom received PES within a month of their stroke. Future trials should confirm whether PES is beneficial in tracheostomised patients who receive stimulation similarly early after stroke and explore its effects in other cohorts

Train and Retain : National and Regional Policies to Promote the Settlement of Foreign Graduates in Knowledge Economies

Over the last decades, a rapid internationalization of higher education has taken place, while simultaneously many countries have started to promote immigration of the highly skilled to their economies. Increasingly, these two developments have become linked as foreign students are widely seen as the ideal highly skilled immigration candidates to retain. This paper provides a comparative analysis of admission and retention policies towards foreign students in selected industrialized countries, with a specific focus on the regional level, where such policies have only recently evolved. Finally, we ask the question to what extent countries and regions have been successful in retaining foreign graduates for their labor markets and where they have encountered problems

Inmigración y seguridad en Europa tras los atentados de Madrid

Los actos terroristas de 11 de marzo de 2004 en Madrid han llevado al terrorismo radical Islámico al interior mismo de la UE. El ataque, que vino casi tres años después de los acontecimientos del 11 de septiembre en los EE.UU. y siguió a una serie de horrendas actuaciones en países en desarrollo, ha matado a 198 personas y ha transformado profunda y persistentemente la agenda de seguridad en Europa. Este artículo examina alguna de las implicaciones de la nueva agenda de seguridad para las políticas de inmigración y de integración de la UE. El trabajo destaca primero el limitado impacto que podrían tener, todas las medidas de seguridad inmediatamente implantables tales como la inclusión de datos biométricos en los documentos de viaje, sobre la inmigración y el control de fronteras. Continúa con el argumento de que, desde el contexto más amplio de la cohesión social y de la seguridad, los países europeos deben urgentemente dirigir su atención hacia el compromiso de las comunidades Islámicas con vistas a su inclusión e integración social en nuestras sociedades. En relación con su dimensión externa, la UE debe dejar claro que no está concebida como un «Club de Cristianos» y que su forma definitiva no terminará en las fronteras de la Europa Cristiana. Ello incluye abrir las negociaciones con Turquía con vistas a su inclusión como miembro, con buena fe y entrando en un diálogo constructivo con el mundo Árabe que incluya los retos que comportan las migraciones

Illegal Migration and Human Smuggling in Central and Eastern Europe

The analytical and statistical services of border management organizations in Central and Eastern European countries have registered and accumulated a vast body of knowledge on the demographics and mechanisms of illegal migration over the last one-and-a-half decade. This paper attempts to tap this resource by summarising the results of a yearly survey among border guards of 17 countries. A set of quantitative indicators of illegal migration is developed, presented and interpreted, based on the answers of the border services to a series of quantitative and qualitative questions. This empirical material is used to evaluate the dynamics and pattern of illegal migration in Central and Eastern Europe on the one hand, and to examine the development of border management strategies on the other. The impacts of legal and institutional reforms are investigated in light of the temporal and spatial variations of border apprehension statistics. The interdependence of the two processes is reviewed from the point of view of national border management authorities, perhaps the most authoritative source of information on the issue. The results of the authors’ annual survey indicate that the progressive development of migration control mechanisms at national and international levels seems to have a significant impact on irregular migration flows as most indicators of illegal migration have significantly decreased after the turn of the century. At the same time, the geographical distribution of illegal migration flows in Central and Eastern European countries has become more complex over the years

Ilegalne migracije i krijumčarenje ljudima u Srednjoj i Istočnoj Europi

The analytical and statistical services of border management organizations in Central and Eastern European countries have registered and accumulated a vast body of knowledge on the demographics and mechanisms of illegal migration over the last one-and-a-half decade. This paper attempts to tap this resource by summarising the results of a yearly survey among border guards of 17 countries. A set of quantitative indicators of illegal migration is developed, presented and interpreted, based on the answers of the border services to a series of quantitative and qualitative questions. This empirical material is used to evaluate the dynamics and pattern of illegal migration in Central and Eastern Europe on the one hand, and to examine the development of border management strategies on the other. The impacts of legal and institutional reforms are investigated in light of the temporal and spatial variations of border apprehension statistics. The interdependence of the two processes is reviewed from the point of view of national border management authorities, perhaps the most authoritative source of information on the issue. The results of the authors’ annual survey indicate that the progressive development of migration control mechanisms at national and international levels seems to have a significant impact on irregular migration flows as most indicators of illegal migration have significantly decreased after the turn of the century. At the same time, the geographical distribution of illegal migration flows in Central and Eastern European countries has become more complex over the years.Analitičke i statističke službe graničnih kontrola u zemljama Srednje i Istočne Europe zapisale su i skupile veliko znanje iz demografije i mehanizama ilegalne migracije tijekom posljednjih petnaest godina. U radu se pokušava iskoristiti taj izvor sumiranjem rezultata godišnjeg pregleda koji su obavili graničari sedamnaest zemalja. Razvijen je set kvantitativnih indikatora ilegalnih migracija koji se prikazuje i interpretira na temelju odgovora graničnih službi na niz kvantitativnih i kvalitativnih pitanja. Empirijski materijal je, s jedne strane, upotrijebljen za procjenu dinamike i uzoraka ilegalne migracije u Srednjoj i Istočnoj Europi, a s druge za ispitivanje razvoja strategija upravljanja granicom. Djelovanje pravnih i institucionalnih reforma ispituje se u svjetlu vremenskih i prostornih varijacija statistika uhićenja na granici. Međuzavisnost tih dvaju procesa promatra se s gledišta nacionalnih graničnih organa upravljanja koji su možda najmjerodavniji izvor informacija. Rezultati godišnjeg pregleda koji su sačinili autori pokazuju da, kako se čini, progresivni razvoj kontrolnih mehanizama migracije na nacionalnoj i međunarodnoj razini značajno utječe na neregularne migracijske tokove budući da je većina pokazatelja ilegalne migracije značajno smanjena na početku ovog stoljeća. Istodobno, geografska distribucija ilegalnih migracijskih tokova u Srednjoj i Istočnoj Europi postala je složenija tijekom godina