Primary and secondary processing of a waking subliminal stimulus in REM and non-REM sleep - empirical investigation of a psychoanalytic concept

The present study deals with one of the fundamental psychoanalytic assumptions: the existence of the primary and secondary process. It can be hypothesized that these two different ways of mental functioning differentiate not only conscious and unconscious processes but also REM- and non-REM-sleep. In REM-sleep, when most bizarre dreams occur, the primary process is supposed to be the dominant mode of thinking while non-REM-sleep, when dreams are mainly characterized as thought-like, is supposed to be organized along secondary process lines. So far, only one single study tried to test this hypothesis applying the method of subliminal stimulation on the sleep-dream cycle (Shevrin & Fisher, 1967). In this experimental study we successfully replicated these early findings. Moreover, additional stimuli were used and neurophysiological measurements recorded. Our findings demonstrate that REM- and non-REM-sleep can indeed be differentiated on the basis of their prevailing kind of mental functioning matching the Freudian idea of primary and secondary process thinking

Howard Shevrin: pioneering investigator of psychoanalytic science

A book review on Psychoanalytische perspectieven: conversations with Howard Shevrin. His work, his research, his idea

Processing of a Subliminal Rebus during Sleep: Idiosyncratic Primary versus Secondary Process Associations upon Awakening from REM- versus Non-REM-Sleep

Primary and secondary processes are the foundational axes of the Freudian mental apparatus: one horizontally as a tendency to associate, the primary process, and one vertically as the ability for perspective taking, the secondary process. Primary process mentation is not only supposed to be dominant in the unconscious but also, for example, in dreams. The present study tests the hypothesis that the mental activity during REM-sleep has more characteristics of the primary process, while during non-REM-sleep more secondary process operations take place. Because the solving of a rebus requires the ability to non-contexually condensate the literal reading of single stimuli into a new one, rebus solving is a primary process operation by excellence. In a replication of the dream-rebus study of Shevrin and Fisher (1967), a rebus, which consisted of an image of a comb (German: “Kamm”) and an image of a raft (German: “Floß”), resulting in the German rebus word “kampflos” (Engl.: without a struggle), was flashed subliminally (at 1 ms) to 20 participants before going to sleep. Upon consecutive awakenings participants were asked for a dream report, free associations and an image description. Based on objective association norms, there were significantly more conceptual associations referring to Kamm and Floß indexing secondary process mentation when subjects were awakened from non-REM sleep as compared to REM-awakenings. There were not significantly more rebus associations referring to kampflos indexing primary process mentation when awakened from REM-sleep as compared to non-REM awakenings. However, when the associations were scored on the basis of each subject’s individual norms, there was a rebus effect with more idiosyncratic rebus associations in awakenings after REM than after non-REM-sleep. Our results support the general idea that REM-sleep is characterized by primary process thinking, while non-REM-sleep mentation follows the rules of the secondary process

Howard Shevrin: pioneering investigator of psychoanalytic science

A book review on Psychoanalytische perspectieven: conversations with Howard Shevrin. His work, his research, his idea

Howard Shevrin: pioneering investigator of psychoanalytic science

A book review on Psychoanalytische perspectieven: conversations with Howard Shevrin. His work, his research, his idea

Primär- und sekundärprozesshafte Weiterverarbeitung im Wachzustand subliminal präsentierter Stimuli im REM- und non-REM-Schlaf - empirische Überprüfung eines psychoanalytischen Konzeptes

The present study deals with one of the fundamental psychoanalytic assumptions: the existence of the primary and secondary process. It can be hypothesized that these two different ways of mental functioning differentiate not only conscious and unconscious processes but also REM- and non-REM-sleep. In REM-sleep, when most bizarre dreams occur, the primary process is supposed to be the dominant mode of thinking while non-REM-sleep, when dreams are mainly characterized as thought-like, is supposed to be organized along secondary process lines. So far, only one single study tried to test this hypothesis applying the method of subliminal stimulation on the sleep-dream cycle (Shevrin&Fisher, 1967). In this experimental study we successfully replicated these early findings. Moreover, additional stimuli were used and neurophysiological measurements recorded. Our findings demonstrate that REM- and non-REM-sleep can indeed be differentiated on the basis of their prevailing kind of mental functioning matching the Freudian idea of primary and secondary process thinking

Processing of a subliminal rebus during sleep: Idiosyncratic primary versus secondary process associations upon awakening of REM- versus non-REM-sleep.

International audienc

Grief interventions for people bereaved by suicide: A systematic review

<div><p>Background</p><p>Adaption to the loss of a loved one due to suicide can be complicated by feelings of guilt, shame, responsibility, rejection, and stigmatization. Therefore people bereaved by suicide have an increased risk for developing complicated grief which is related to negative physical and mental disorders and an increased risk for suicidal behavior. Grief interventions are needed for this vulnerable population. The aim of this systematic review was to provide an overview of the current state of evidence concerning the effectiveness of interventions that focus on grief for people bereaved by suicide.</p><p>Methods</p><p>We conducted a systematic literature search using PubMed, Web of Science, and PsycINFO for articles published up until November 2016. Relevant papers were identified and methodological quality was assessed by independent raters. A narrative synthesis was conducted.</p><p>Results</p><p>Seven intervention studies met the inclusion criteria. Two interventions were based on cognitive-behavioral approaches, four consisted of bereavement groups, and one utilized writing therapy. As five of the seven interventions were effective in reducing grief intensity on at least one outcome measure, there is some evidence that they are beneficial. Bereavement groups tend to be effective in lowering the intensity of uncomplicated grief, as are writing interventions in lowering suicide-specific aspects of grief. Cognitive-behavioral programs were helpful for a subpopulation of people who had high levels of suicidal ideation.</p><p>Limitation</p><p>On average, methodological quality was low so the evidence for benefits is not robust. The stability of treatment effects could not be determined as follow-up assessments are rare. Generalizability is limited due to homogeneous enrollments of mainly female, white, middle-aged individuals.</p><p>Conclusions</p><p>People bereaved by suicide are especially vulnerable to developing complicated grief. Therefore, grief therapies should be adapted to and evaluated in this population. Prevention of complicated grief may be successful in populations of high risk individuals.</p></div

Summary of the included studies without a comparison group.

<p>Summary of the included studies without a comparison group.</p