Evolution of genes and repeats in the Nimrod superfamily

The recently identified Nimrod superfamily is characterized by the presence of a special type of EGF repeat, the NIM repeat, located right after a typical CCXGY/W amino acid motif. On the basis of structural features, nimrod genes can be divided into three types. The proteins encoded by Draper-type genes have an EMI domain at the N-terminal part and only one copy of the NIM motif, followed by a variable number of EGF-like repeats. The products of Nimrod B-type and Nimrod C-type genes (including the eater gene) have different kinds of N-terminal domains, and lack EGF-like repeats but contain a variable number of NIM repeats. Draper and Nimrod C-type (but not Nimrod B-type) proteins carry a transmembrane domain. Several members of the superfamily were claimed to function as receptors in phagocytosis and/or binding of bacteria, which indicates an important role in the cellular immunity and the elimination of apoptotic cells. In this paper, the evolution of the Nimrod superfamily is studied with various methods on the level of genes and repeats. A hypothesis is presented in which the NIM repeat, along with the EMI domain, emerged by structural reorganizations at the end of an EGF-like repeat chain, suggesting a mechanism for the formation of novel types of repeats. The analyses revealed diverse evolutionary patterns in the sequences containing multiple NIM repeats. Although in the Nimrod B and Nimrod C proteins show characteristics of independent evolution, many internal NIM repeats in Eater sequences seem to have undergone concerted evolution. An analysis of the nimrod genes has been performed using phylogenetic and other methods and an evolutionary scenario of the origin and diversification of the Nimrod superfamily is proposed. Our study presents an intriguing example how the evolution of multigene families may contribute to the complexity of the innate immune response

The P2X1 receptor and platelet function

Extracellular nucleotides are ubiquitous signalling molecules, acting via the P2 class of surface receptors. Platelets express three P2 receptor subtypes, ADP-dependent P2Y1 and P2Y12 G-protein-coupled receptors and the ATP-gated P2X1 non-selective cation channel. Platelet P2X1 receptors can generate significant increases in intracellular Ca2+, leading to shape change, movement of secretory granules and low levels of αIIbβ3 integrin activation. P2X1 can also synergise with several other receptors to amplify signalling and functional events in the platelet. In particular, activation of P2X1 receptors by ATP released from dense granules amplifies the aggregation responses to low levels of the major agonists, collagen and thrombin. In vivo studies using transgenic murine models show that P2X1 receptors amplify localised thrombosis following damage of small arteries and arterioles and also contribute to thromboembolism induced by intravenous co-injection of collagen and adrenaline. In vitro, under flow conditions, P2X1 receptors contribute more to aggregate formation on collagen-coated surfaces as the shear rate is increased, which may explain their greater contribution to localised thrombosis in arterioles compared to venules within in vivo models. Since shear increases substantially near sites of stenosis, anti-P2X1 therapy represents a potential means of reducing thrombotic events at atherosclerotic plaques

The Nimrod transmembrane receptor Eater is required for hemocyte attachment to the sessile compartment in Drosophila melanogaster

International audienceEater is an EGF-like repeat transmembrane receptor of the Nimrod family and is expressed in Drosophila hemocytes. Eater was initially identified for its role in phagocytosis of both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. We have deleted eater and show that it appears to be required for efficient phagocytosis of Gram-positive but not Gram-negative bacteria. However, the most striking phenotype of eater deficient larvae is the near absence of sessile hemocytes, both plasmatocyte and crystal cell types. The eater deletion is the first loss of function mutation identified that causes absence of the sessile hemocyte state. Our study shows that Eater is required cell-autonomously in plasmatocytes for sessility. However, the presence of crystal cells in the sessile compartment requires Eater in plasmatocytes. We also show that eater deficient hemocytes exhibit a cell adhesion defect. Collectively, our data uncovers a new requirement of Eater in enabling hemocyte attachment at the sessile compartment and points to a possible role of Nimrod family members in hemocyte adhesion

G-protein-coupled receptor regulation of P2X(1) receptors does not involve direct channel phosphorylation

P2X(1) receptors for ATP are ligand-gated cation channels, which mediate smooth muscle contraction, contribute to blood clotting and are co-expressed with a range of GPCRs (G-protein-coupled receptors). Stimulation of Gα(q)-coupled mGluR1α (metabotropic glutamate receptor 1α), P2Y(1) or P2Y(2) receptors co-expressed with P2X(1) receptors in Xenopus oocytes evoked calcium-activated chloride currents (I(ClCa)) and potentiated subsequent P2X(1)-receptor-mediated currents by up to 250%. The mGluR1α-receptor-mediated effects were blocked by the phospholipase C inhibitor U-73122. Potentiation was mimicked by treatment with the phor-bol ester PMA. P2X receptors have a conserved intracellular PKC (protein kinase C) site; however, GPCR- and PMA-mediated potentiation was still observed with point mutants in which this site was disrupted. Similarly, the potentiation by GPCRs or PMA was unaffected by chelating the intracellular calcium rise with BAPTA/AM [bis(o-aminophenoxy)ethane-N,N,N′,N′-tetra-acetic acid tetrakis-(acetoxymethyl ester)] or the PKC inhibitors Ro-32-0432 and bisindolylmaleimide I, suggesting that the regulation does not involve a calcium-sensitive form of PKC. However, both GPCR and PMA potentiation were blocked by the kinase inhibitor staurosporine. Potentiation by phorbol esters was recorded in HEK-293 cells expressing P2X(1) receptors, and radiolabelling of phosphorylated proteins in these cells demonstrated that P2X(1) receptors are basally phosphorylated and that this level of phosphorylation is unaffected by phorbol ester treatment. This demonstrates that P2X(1) regulation does not result directly from phosphorylation of the channel, but more likely by a staurosporine-sensitive phosphorylation of an accessory protein in the P2X(1) receptor complex and suggests that in vivo fine-tuning of P2X(1) receptors by GPCRs may contribute to cardiovascular control and haemostasis