The changing role of china in the global illegal cigarette trade

This study explores the history of the illegal production, distribution, and smuggling of cigarettes in mainland China. Data were obtained from a content analysis of 931 media reports retrieved from LexisNexis for the time period 1975 until 2010, and from other open sources. The illegal cigarette trade first emerged in the form of violations of state tobacco monopoly regulations. In the course of the restructuring of the legal tobacco sector, which occurred under external political pressure to open the Chinese market to foreign competition, an illegal cigarette industry emerged which at first primarily produced fake Chinese brand cigarettes for the domestic black market. At the same time, China became a destination country for smuggled genuine Western brand cigarettes. It was only after effective crackdowns against cigarette smuggling and domestic distribution channels in the late 1990s that the Chinese illegal cigarette industry shifted to exporting large numbers of counterfeit Western brand cigarettes to black markets abroad. China’s current role as a leading supplier of counterfeit cigarettes is a result of the contradictions of the economic reform process and of external licit and illicit forces that worked toward opening up the Chinese tobacco sector to the outside world

Tobacco industry globalization and global health governance: : towards an interdisciplinary research agenda

Shifting patterns of tobacco production and consumption, and the resultant disease burden worldwide since the late twentieth century prompted efforts to strengthen global health governance through adoption of the Framework Convention on Tobacco Control. While the treaty is rightfully considered an important achievement, to address a neglected public health issue through collective action, evidence suggests that tobacco industry globalization continues apace. In this article we provide a systematic review of the public health literature and reveal definitional and measurement imprecision, ahistorical timeframes, transnational tobacco companies and the state as the primary units and levels of analysis, and a strong emphasis on agency as opposed to structural power. Drawing on the study of globalization in international political economy and business studies, we identify opportunities to expand analysis along each of these dimensions. We conclude that this expanded and interdisciplinary research agenda provides the potential for fuller understanding of the dual and dynamic relationship between the tobacco industry and globalization. Deeper analysis of how the industry has adapted to globalization over time, as well as how the industry has influenced the nature and trajectory of globalization, is essential for building effective global governance responses

Drug-microbiota interactions and treatment response: Relevance to rheumatoid arthritis

Knowledge about associations between changes in the structure and/or function of intestinal microbes (the microbiota) and the pathogenesis of various diseases is expanding. However, interactions between the intestinal microbiota and different pharmaceuticals and the impact of these on responses to treatment are less well studied. Several mechanisms are known by which drug-microbiota interactions can influence drug bioavailability, efficacy, and/or toxicity. This includes direct activation or inactivation of drugs by microbial enzymes which can enhance or reduce drug effectiveness. The extensive metabolic capabilities of the intestinal microbiota make it a hotspot for drug modification. However, drugs can also influence the microbiota profoundly and change the outcome of interactions with the host. Additionally, individual microbiota signatures are unique, leading to substantial variation in host responses to particular drugs. In this review, we describe several known and emerging examples of how drug-microbiota interactions influence the responses of patients to treatment for various diseases, including inflammatory bowel disease, type 2 diabetes and cancer. Focussing on rheumatoid arthritis (RA), a chronic inflammatory disease of the joints which has been linked with microbial dysbiosis, we propose mechanisms by which the intestinal microbiota may affect responses to treatment with methotrexate which are highly variable. Furthering our knowledge of this subject will eventually lead to the adoption of new treatment strategies incorporating microbiota signatures to predict or improve treatment outcomes

Intestinal microbiota in human health and disease: the impact of probiotics

The complex communities of microorganisms that colonise the human gastrointestinal tract play an important role in human health. The development of culture-independent molecular techniques has provided new insights in the composition and diversity of the intestinal microbiota. Here, we summarise the present state of the art on the intestinal microbiota with specific attention for the application of high-throughput functional microbiomic approaches to determine the contribution of the intestinal microbiota to human health. Moreover, we review the association between dysbiosis of the microbiota and both intestinal and extra-intestinal diseases. Finally, we discuss the potential of probiotic microorganism to modulate the intestinal microbiota and thereby contribute to health and well-being. The effects of probiotic consumption on the intestinal microbiota are addressed, as well as the development of tailor-made probiotics designed for specific aberrations that are associated with microbial dysbiosis