Differential form and numerical implementation of Biot’s poroelasticity equations with squirt dissipation

The squirt-flow wave attenuation mechanism is implemented in Biot's theory of poroelasticity in the form of differential equations. All the stiffnesses involved in the stress-strain relation become complex and frequency dependent, which can exactly be expressed in terms of kernels based on the Zener mechanical model. In the time domain, this approach implies time convolutions, which are circumvented by introducing memory variables. The differential equations are consistent with Gassmann's and Mavko-Jizba equations at low and high frequencies, respectively. All the coefficients in the poro-viscoelastic differential equations have a clear physical meaning and can be obtained or estimated from independent measurements. The key additional parameters are the dry-rock bulk modulus at a confining pressure where all the compliant pores are closed, i.e., a hypothetical rock without the soft porosity, the grain-contact aspect ratio and the compliant porosity. We recasted the wave equation in the particle-velocity/stress formulation and solved it by using a time-splitting technique and the Fourier pseudospectral method to compute the spatial derivatives. The algorithm can be used to obtain synthetic wave fields in inhomogeneous media

Biot-Rayleigh theory of wave propagation in double-porosity media

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Angular and Frequency-Dependent Wave Velocity and Attenuation in Fractured Porous Media

Wave-induced fluid flow generates a dominant attenuation mechanism in porous media. It consists of energy loss due to P-wave conversion to Biot (diffusive) modes at mesoscopic-scale inhomogeneities. Fractured poroelastic media show significant attenuation and velocity dispersion due to this mechanism. The theory has first been developed for the symmetry axis of the equivalent transversely isotropic (TI) medium corresponding to a poroelastic medium containing planar fractures. In this work, we consider the theory for all propagation angles by obtaining the five complex and frequency-dependent stiffnesses of the equivalent TI medium as a function of frequency. We assume that the flow direction is perpendicular to the layering plane and is independent of the loading direction. As a consequence, the behaviour of the medium can be described by a single relaxation function. We first consider the limiting case of an open (highly permeable) fracture of negligible thickness. We then compute the associated wave velocities and quality factors as a function of the propagation direction (phase and ray angles) and frequency. The location of the relaxation peak depends on the distance between fractures (the mesoscopic distance), viscosity, permeability and fractures compliances. The flow induced by wave propagation affects the quasi-shear (qS) wave with levels of attenuation similar to those of the quasi-compressional (qP) wave.On the other hand, a general fracture can be modeled as a sequence of poroelastic layers, where one of the layers is very thin. Modeling fractures of different thickness filled with CO2 embedded in a background medium saturated with a stiffer fluid also shows considerable attenuation and velocity dispersion. If the fracture and background frames are the same, the equivalent medium is isotropic, but strong wave anisotropy occurs in the case of a frameless and highly permeable fracture material, for instance a suspension of solid particles in the fluid

Anisotropic poroelasticity and wave-induced fluid flow: Harmonic finite-element simulations

A dominant P-wave attenuation mechanism in reservoir rocks at seismic frequencies is due to wave-induced fluid flow (mesoscopic loss). The P-wave induces a fluid-pressure difference at mesoscopic-scale inhomogeneities (larger than the pore size but smaller than the wavelength), generating fluid flow and slow (diffusion) Biot waves. The theory has been developed in the 1970s for the symmetry axis of the equivalent transversely isotropic (TI) medium corresponding to a finely layered medium, and has recently been generalized to all propagation angles. The new theory states that the fluid-flow direction is perpendicular to the layering plane and it is independent of the loading direction. As a consequence, the relaxation behaviour can be described by a single relaxation function, since the medium consists of plane homogeneous layers. Besides P-wave losses, the coupling between the qP and qSV waves generates shear-wave anisotropic velocity dispersion and attenuation. In this work, we introduce a set of quasi-static numerical experiments to determine the equivalent viscoelastic TI medium to a finely layered poroelastic medium, which is validated using a recently developed analytical solution. The modelling technique is the finite-element (FE) method, where the equations of motion are solved in the space-frequency domain. Numerical rock physics may, in many circumstances, offer an alternative to laboratory measurements. Numerical experiments are inexpensive and informative since the physical process of wave propagation can be inspected during the experiment. Moreover, they are repeatable, essentially free from experimental errors, and may easily be run using alternative models of the rock and fluid properties. We apply the methodology to the Utsira aquifer of the North Sea, where carbon dioxide (CO2) has been injected during the last 15 years. The tests consider alternating layers of the same rock saturated with gas and brine and a sequence of gas-saturated sandstone and mudstone layers, which represent possible models of the reservoir and cap rock of the aquifer system. The numerical examples confirm the new theory and illustrate the implementation of the harmonic tests to determine the complex and frequency-dependent effective stiffnesses and the associated wave velocities and quality factors.Facultad de Ciencias Astronómicas y Geofísica

Anisotropic poroelasticity and wave-induced fluid flow: Harmonic finite-element simulations

A dominant P-wave attenuation mechanism in reservoir rocks at seismic frequencies is due to wave-induced fluid flow (mesoscopic loss). The P-wave induces a fluid-pressure difference at mesoscopic-scale inhomogeneities (larger than the pore size but smaller than the wavelength), generating fluid flow and slow (diffusion) Biot waves. The theory has been developed in the 1970s for the symmetry axis of the equivalent transversely isotropic (TI) medium corresponding to a finely layered medium, and has recently been generalized to all propagation angles. The new theory states that the fluid-flow direction is perpendicular to the layering plane and it is independent of the loading direction. As a consequence, the relaxation behaviour can be described by a single relaxation function, since the medium consists of plane homogeneous layers. Besides P-wave losses, the coupling between the qP and qSV waves generates shear-wave anisotropic velocity dispersion and attenuation. In this work, we introduce a set of quasi-static numerical experiments to determine the equivalent viscoelastic TI medium to a finely layered poroelastic medium, which is validated using a recently developed analytical solution. The modelling technique is the finite-element (FE) method, where the equations of motion are solved in the space-frequency domain. Numerical rock physics may, in many circumstances, offer an alternative to laboratory measurements. Numerical experiments are inexpensive and informative since the physical process of wave propagation can be inspected during the experiment. Moreover, they are repeatable, essentially free from experimental errors, and may easily be run using alternative models of the rock and fluid properties. We apply the methodology to the Utsira aquifer of the North Sea, where carbon dioxide (CO2) has been injected during the last 15 years. The tests consider alternating layers of the same rock saturated with gas and brine and a sequence of gas-saturated sandstone and mudstone layers, which represent possible models of the reservoir and cap rock of the aquifer system. The numerical examples confirm the new theory and illustrate the implementation of the harmonic tests to determine the complex and frequency-dependent effective stiffnesses and the associated wave velocities and quality factors.Facultad de Ciencias Astronómicas y Geofísica

Numerical experiments of fracture-induced velocity and attenuation anisotropy

Fractures are common in the Earth's crust due to different factors, for instance, tectonic stresses and natural or artificial hydraulic fracturing caused by a pressurized fluid. A dense set of fractures behaves as an effective long-wavelength anisotropic medium, leading to azimuthally varying velocity and attenuation of seismic waves. Effective in this case means that the predominant wavelength is much longer than the fracture spacing. Here, fractures are represented by surface discontinuities in the displacement u and particle velocity v as [κ · u + η · v], where the brackets denote the discontinuity across the surface, κ is a fracture stiffness and η is a fracture viscosity. We consider an isotropic background medium, where a set of fractures are embedded. There exists an analytical solution-with five stiffness components-for equispaced plane fractures and an homogeneous background medium. The theory predicts that the equivalent medium is transversely isotropic and viscoelastic. We then perform harmonic numerical experiments to compute the stiffness components as a function of frequency, by using a Galerkin finite-element procedure, and obtain the complex velocities of the medium as a function of frequency and propagation direction, which provide the phase velocities, energy velocities (wavefronts) and quality factors. The algorithm is tested with the analytical solution and then used to obtain the stiffness components for general heterogeneous cases, where fractal variations of the fracture compliances and background stiffnesses are considered.Este documento tiene una corrección (ver documento relacionado).Facultad de Ciencias Astronómicas y Geofísica

Numerical experiments of fracture-induced velocity and attenuation anisotropy

Fractures are common in the Earth's crust due to different factors, for instance, tectonic stresses and natural or artificial hydraulic fracturing caused by a pressurized fluid. A dense set of fractures behaves as an effective long-wavelength anisotropic medium, leading to azimuthally varying velocity and attenuation of seismic waves. Effective in this case means that the predominant wavelength is much longer than the fracture spacing. Here, fractures are represented by surface discontinuities in the displacement u and particle velocity v as [κ · u + η · v], where the brackets denote the discontinuity across the surface, κ is a fracture stiffness and η is a fracture viscosity. We consider an isotropic background medium, where a set of fractures are embedded. There exists an analytical solution-with five stiffness components-for equispaced plane fractures and an homogeneous background medium. The theory predicts that the equivalent medium is transversely isotropic and viscoelastic. We then perform harmonic numerical experiments to compute the stiffness components as a function of frequency, by using a Galerkin finite-element procedure, and obtain the complex velocities of the medium as a function of frequency and propagation direction, which provide the phase velocities, energy velocities (wavefronts) and quality factors. The algorithm is tested with the analytical solution and then used to obtain the stiffness components for general heterogeneous cases, where fractal variations of the fracture compliances and background stiffnesses are considered.Este documento tiene una corrección (ver documento relacionado).Facultad de Ciencias Astronómicas y Geofísica

UT Coverage of Nozzle Inner Radius including Amplitudes

This paper reports progress in on-going studies to validate UT modeling of nozzle inner radius examinations. In a previous paper [1] it was shown that geometric modeling and raytracing in the Windows-based software WARay3D predicts the geometry and location of search units needed to detect known defects in a nozzle mock-up. The present paper describes the addition of beam forming [2] and flaw response [3] modeling to WARay3D and compares predicted amplitudes with those measured in the same nozzle mock-up. Beam forming and flaw response are formulated analytically and make use of the output of geometric ray tracing, which includes flaw detection and metal path leading to a computationally efficient hybrid approach. Correlation between predicted and measured amplitude drop is presented for ultrasonic signals from corner trap inspection of innerradius flaws. Reference signals are obtained from calibration tests using corner trap at a machined flat surface

The exploding-reflector concept for ground-penetrating-radar modeling

The simulation of a stacked radargram requires the calculation of a set of common-source experiments and application of the standard processing sequence. To reduce computing time, a zero-offset stacked section can be obtained with a single simulation, by using the exploding-reflector concept and the so-called non-reflecting wave equation. This non-physical modification of the wave equation implies a constant impedance model to avoid multiple reflections, which are, in principle, absent from stacked sections and constitute unwanted artifacts in migration processes. Magnetic permeability is used as a free parameter to obtain a constant impedance model and avoid multiple reflections. The reflection strength is then implicit in the source strength. Moreover, the method generates normal-incidence reflections, i.e. those having identical downgoing and upgoing wave paths.Exploding reflector experiments provide correct travel times of diffraction and reflection events, in contrast to the plane-wave method

SH-TM mathematical analogy for the two-layer case. A magnetotellurics application

The same mathematical formalism of the wave equation can be used to describe anelastic and electromagnetic wave propagation. In this work, we obtain the mathematical analogy for the reflection/refraction (transmission) problem of two layers, considering the presence of anisotropy and attenuation -- viscosity in the viscoelastic case and resistivity in the electromagnetic case. The analogy is illustrated for SH (shear-horizontally polarised) and TM (transverse-magnetic) waves. In particular, we illustrate examples related to the magnetotelluric method applied to geothermal systems and consider the effects of anisotropy. The solution is tested with the classical solution for stratified isotropic media