Hepatitis B virus genotyping and detection of reverse transcriptase drug resistance mutations

Približno 257 milijuna osoba u svijetu boluje od kronične infekcije virusom hepatitisa B, što u slučaju neliječenja dovodi do ciroze jetre ili hepatocelularnog karcinoma. Virus hepatitisa B je DNA virus s reverznom transkriptazom (RT) koja nema egzonukleaznu aktivnost, što rezultira visokom stopom mutacija. Infekcija se najčešće liječi kompeticijskim inhibitorima reverzne transkriptaze koji ometaju replikaciju virusa. Kao posljedica selekcijskog pritiska uzrokovanog terapijom, ali i imunosnim odgovorom, javljaju se mutacije koje mogu dovesti do rezistencije. Cilj ovog istraživanja bio je po prvi puta odrediti genotipove virusa HBV u 30 ispitanika iz Hrvatske te mutacije koje su odgovorne za rezistenciju na inhibitore RT kao i one odgovorne za izbjegavanje imunosnog odgovora. Sangerovim sekvenciranjem interdomene A-B gena za RT te analizom sekvencija u algoritmu Geno2Pheno određeni su genotipovi te tražene mutacije. Od deset HBV genotipova koji su identificirani u svijetu, u Hrvatskoj su prisutni genotip A (A2) u 20% i genotip D (D1, D2, D3) u 80% ispitanika. U dva ispitanika genotipa A detektirane su mutacije koje uzrokuju rezistenciju na inhibitore RT. Mutacije za izbjegavanje imunosnog odgovora detektirane su u 6 ispitanika genotipa A te u 8 ispitanika genotipa D. Distribucija genotipova kao i prevalencija mutacija odgovara onima zabilježenim u ostalim zemljama Europe.Approximately 257 million people in the world have had chronic hepatitis B virus infection, which, in case of non-treatment, causes liver cirrhosis or hepatocellular carcinoma. Hepatitis B virus is a DNA virus with a reverse transcriptase (RT) lacking exonuclease activity resulting in a high rate of viral mutations. Infection is mostly treated with competitive inhibitors of reverse transcriptase that obstruct the virus replication. The consequences of selective pressure caused by treatment as well as the immune response, may be the mutations leading to resistance. The goal of this research was to define the genotypes of HBV for the first time in a group of 30 examinees from Croatia and define the mutations responsible for the resistance to the RT inhibitors as well as the immuno-escape mutations. By sequencing A-B interdomain of the HBV RT gene by Sanger method and analysis of the sequences in the Geno2Pheno algorithm has determined virus genotypes and mutations. Out of the ten genotypes identified in the world, genotype A (A2) is present in 20% and genotype D (D1, D2, D3) in 80% of examinees in Croatia. In two genotype A examinees a mutation was detected, which caused resistance to the RT inhibitors. Immune-escape mutations were detected in 6 genotype A examinees and 8 genotype D examinees. Distribution of genotypes as well as the mutation prevalence are similar to those recorded in the other European countries

Energetski ciklus genovske ciklone

Zonal available potential energy, eddy available potential energy, eddy kinetic energy and conversion of zonal to eddy potential energy have been evaluated for the period from 5 to 15 February 1986 using data from Wetterbericht charts. These terms were calculated for a limited domain ranging from 400N to 500N latitude and from 50E to 200E longitude. A cyclone developed over the Bay of Genoa during the considered period. The system formed simultaneously at all levels in the troposphere as was noticeable on the synoptic charts. The cyclone life cycle could be described by time variations of the eddy available potential energy, since it increased during the intensifying and decreased during the weakening stage of the system. A stability diagram has been used to examine connection of the cyclone amplification and calculated energy terms with conditions in the atmosphere presented by critical meridional temperature gradient. The results obtained by the stability diagram correspond to energy estimations. In those days for which the stability diagram indicated amplification of the cyclone, the eddy energy terms increased and so the cyclone growth was evident on the synoptic charts.Zonalna raspoloživa potencijalna energija, raspoloživa potencijalna energija makroporemećaja, kinetička energija makroporemećaja i transformacija zonalne raspoložive potencijalne energije u raspoloživu potencijalnu energiju makroporemećaja proračunati su za period od 5. do 15. veljače 1986. na temelju podataka dobivenih pomoću Wetterbericht sinoptičkih karata. U tom je periodu došlo do formiranja Genovske ciklone čiji je razvoj istovremeno uočljiv kako na prizemnim, tako i na visinskim sinoptičkim kartama. Raspoloživa potencijalna energija makroporemećaja povećavala se tijekom perioda jačanja ciklone, a smanjivala se tijekom njenog slabljenja, pa se razvoj ciklone može pratiti promjenama te veličine. Korišten je i dijagram stabilnosti za procjenu povezanosti razvoja ciklone i njene energetike s uvjetima u atmosferi prikazanim pomoću kritičnog meridionalnog gradijenta temperature. Analiza rezultata pokazala je da razmatranje razvoja ciklone pomoću dijagrama stabilnosti odgovara energetskim procjenama. Naime, onih dana kad je dijagram stabilnosti ukazivao na povoljne uvjete za jačanje ciklone, također se povećavala i energija makroporemećaja

Utjecaj leda na površini mora na sezonske klimatske promjene

The sensitivity of the atmospheric circulation to a different specification of sea-ice temperature and its seasonal cycle is analysed from the 50-year long integrations with SPEEDY, an intermediate complexity atmospheric general circulation model (AGCM). This impact is inferred from the difference between model atmospheric states obtained with and without the inclusion of the thermodynamic effects of sea ice. The two experiments with sea ice were made – the first one used climatological monthly mean temperatures for sea ice (derived from ERA–15 data), whereas in the second experiment the sea-ice temperature was determined by a thermodynamic model embedded into the SPEEDY code. It is shown that the thermodynamic model tends to amplify the seasonal cycle of temperature. In the boreal winter, the inclusion of the thermodynamic model for sea-ice temperature leads to a general cooling of the model atmosphere at high latitudes (when compared with the experiment with climatological sea ice), associated with the reduction in geopotential heights and the strengthening of zonal winds. It also reduces the extent and amount of cloud cover in the mid- and high latitudes. Atmospheric cooling could be directly linked to the increased sea-ice seasonal cycle, because the increased albedo over sea ice reduces incoming solar radiation and further stabilises already cold air. Some of the changes induced by sea ice extend throughout the whole depth of the model atmosphere and could be linked directly to strong meridional differential temperature gradients. In addition, some seasonally varying symmetry between the Northern and the Southern Hemisphere is also found. In summer when the receding sea ice is included in model integration, the opposite effects are seen: differential temperature gradients are of the opposite sign, the atmosphere is warmed thus effecting a reduction in zonal winds and an increase in cloudiness. These effects are stronger in amplitude than those associated with the maximum winter extent of sea ice, suggesting that ocean heat flux from the ice-free water together with increased solar radiation and convection bear a strong mark on the model atmosphere.Utjecaj leda na površini mora na opću cirkulaciju atmosfere razmatran je pomoću relativno jednostavnog atmosferskog globalnog cirkulacijskog modela (nazvanog Speedy). Posebna je pažnja posvećena sezonskim promjenama raspodjele leda te njegovom termodinamičkom utjecaju. U tu su svrhu definirana dva eksperimenta: prvi koristi klimatološke mjesečne temperature leda na površini mora (dobivenih pomoću ERA–15 podataka), dok drugi eksperiment uključuje termodinamički model za dobivanje temperatura leda. U oba eksperimenta je integracija modelom izvedena u trajanju od 50 godina. Rezultati pokazuju da termodinamički model pojačava sezonski ciklus temperature. Tako tijekom zime uključivanje termodinamičkog modela uzrokuje dodatno hlađenje atmosfere viših geografskih širina u odnosu na temperature dobivene integracijom modela s klimatološkim vrijednostima temperature leda na površini mora. Takva temperaturna raspodjela praćena je smanjenjem visina geopotencijalnih ploha te jačanjem zonalnog vjetra. Također je modelom dobivena i smanjena naoblaka u području srednjih i viših geografskih širina. Hlađenje atmosfere može se izravno povezati sa sezonskim ciklusom jer led na površini mora povećava albedo te na taj način smanjuje upadno sunčevo zračenje, a time dodatno stabilizira ionako hladni zrak. Neke od promjena uzrokovane ledom na površini mora se protežu kroz cijelu modeliranu atmosferu. Takvo ponašanje može se izravno povezati s jakim meridionalnim gradijentim temperature. Nadalje, uočena je određena sezonska simetričnost između Sjeverne i Južne Hemisfere. Tijekom ljeta kad je smanjen ledeni pokrov, model daje suprotne rezultate od onih dobivenih za zimsku sezonu: atmosfera je toplija uz slabljenje zonalnog vjetra i povećanu naoblaku. Ove promjene imaju veću amplitudu od onih povezanih s maksimalnom količinom ledenog pokrova tijekom zime. Taj rezultat upućuje na to da toplinski tokovi sa slobodne površine mora zajedno s povećanim sunčevim zračenjem i konvekcijom imaju značajan utjecaj na modeliranu atmosferu

Utjecaj vlažnosti tla i vegetacijskog pokrova na numeričke simulacije površinske temperature, oborine i evaporacije na području Europe

In this paper we explore the impact of vegetation cover and soil moisture coupling on climate simulations over the Europe. For this purpose, the International Centre for Theoretical Physics (ICTP) atmospheric general circulation model (AGCM) is used. The analysis is based on three targeted simulations for the period 1981–2010: a control experiment (with a simple land-surface model that mimics interaction of soil and atmosphere); an experiment with land-surface temperature and soil moisture coupling, and an experiment with both soil moisture and interactive vegetation coupling. The amplitude and interannual variability of surface air temperature, precipitation and evaporation for summer and winter seasons are examined. Compared to the control experiment, increasing of surface temperature over the continental Europe is found for the experiment with soil-moisture model for both, winter and summer seasons. However, when ICTP AGCM is coupled with the dynamic vegetation model, increasing of surface temperature is simulated only during the summer, while it is reduced during the winter. Generally, the dynamic vegetation model reduces total precipitation over the observed domain, and areas with the most pronounced decrease of the total precipitation coincide with areas of reduced evaporation. The results indicate substantial impact of soil moisture and vegetation coupling on amplitudes of simulated surface air temperature, precipitation and evaporation with predominant contribution of the soil moisture coupling. Contrary, the impact on the interannual variability of analyzed variables is rather weak.U ovom radu ispitan je utjecaj vegetacijskog pokrova i vlažnosti tla na klimatske simulacije na području Europe. U tu je svrhu korišten model opće cirkulacije atmosfere – ICTP AGCM. Napravljene su tri ciljane simulacije za vremensko razdoblje 1981.–2010. god.: kontrolni eksperiment u kojem je simulirano međudjelovanje tla i atmosfere jednostavnim modelom interakcije tla i atmosfere (eng. land-surface model), zatim eksperiment u kojem je atmosferski model združen s modelom vlažnosti tla (eng. land-surface temperature and soil moisture coupling) te eksperiment modelom vlažnosti tla i s interaktivnom vegetacijom (eng. interactive vegetation coupling). Ispitan je utjecaj modela vlage u tlu i dinamičke vegetacije na amplitudu i međugodišnju promjenjivost površinske temperature zraka, oborine i evaporacije za zimsku i ljetnu sezonu. U usporedbi s kontrolnim eksperimentom, model združen s modelom vlage u tlu simulira povećanje temperature iznad kontinentalnog dijela Europe tijekom obje promatrane sezone. Međutim, modelom s interaktivnom vegetacijom se povećanje temperature simulira samo tijekom ljeta, dok je zimi dobiveno njeno smanjenje. Općenito, model dinamičke vegetacije smanjuje ukupnu oborinu, a područja s najizraženijim smanjenjem se podudaraju s područjima reducirane evaporacije. Rezultati prikazani u ovom radu ukazuju da model vlage u tlu i model interaktivne vegetacije značajno utječu na amplitude simulirane temperature zraka, oborine i evaporacije. Suprotno tome, nije dobiven značajan ujecaj na međugodišnju varijabilnost promatranih parametara

North Atlantic SSTs as a Link between the Wintertime NAO and the Following Spring Climate

Abstract In this paper a potential seasonally lagged impact of the wintertime North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) on the subsequent spring climate over the European region is explored. Supported by the observational indication of the wintertime NAO–spring climate connection, a modeling approach is used that employs the International Centre for Theoretical Physics (ICTP) atmospheric general circulation model (AGCM) as a stand-alone model and that is also coupled with a mixed layer ocean in the North Atlantic. Both observational and modeled data indicate a pattern of sea surface temperatures (SSTs) in North Atlantic as a possible link between wintertime NAO and climate anomalies in the following spring. The SST pattern is associated with wintertime NAO and persists through the following spring. It is argued that these SST anomalies can affect the springtime atmospheric circulation and surface conditions over Europe. The atmospheric response is recognized in observed as well as in modeled data (mean sea level pressure, temperature, and precipitation). Additionally, an impact on springtime storm activity is found as well. It is demonstrated that the SST anomalies associated with wintertime NAO persist into the subsequent spring. These SST anomalies enable atmosphere–ocean interaction over the North Atlantic and consequently affect the climate variability over Europe. Although it has a relatively weak impact, the described mechanism provides a temporal teleconnection between the wintertime NAO and subsequent spring climate anomalies

Simulacije klimatskog odziva na udvostručene koncentracije ugljičnog dioksida u atmosferi korištenjem jednostavnog modela opće cirkulacije atmosfere

Atmospheric response to doubled carbon dioxide concentration is estimated by analyzing 35-member ensemble mean made by an atmospheric general circulation model of intermediate complexity. Simulated changes in the mean fields are evaluated for winter (January-February-March) and summer (July-August-September) seasons. Results show that doubled CO2 concentration causes warming of around 2 °C at all levels in the model. At the surface, the largest temperature change is found over the polar areas; while at the higher levels considerable warming is found mostly over the continental parts. Atmospheric warming at the 300 hPa level is accompanied by cooling over the polar areas. At the levels above 300 hPa, temperature drops globally. Changes in jet stream occur at Northern Hemisphere with larger winter amplitudes. During the respective winter, stratiform precipitation significantly increases at the higher latitudes of both hemispheres and decreases mostly over the oceans. Over the Northern Hemisphere, convective precipitation is significantly increased during the summer. Over the southern part of tropical Pacific, stratiform and convective precipitation is decreased during the both seasons. Results also demonstrate that indirect impact of increased CO2 concentration (i.e. effects associated with changes in the lower boundary conditions) generally has a stronger contribution to the tropospheric warming than direct CO2 impact (i.e. the impact associated with absorption and emission of longwave radiation).Atmosferski odziv na udvostručene koncentracije ugljičnog dioksida istražen je pomoću 35-članog ansambla kreiranog relativno jednostavnim modelom opće cirkulacije atmosfere. Promjene srednjih stanja analizirane su za zimsku (siječanj-veljača-ožujak) i ljetnu (srpanj-kolovoz-rujan) sezonu. Rezultati pokazuju da udvostručenje koncentracije CO2 uzrokuje zatopljenje od oko 2 °C na svim promatranim nivoima. U prizemnom sloju do najvećih promjena dolazi u polarnim područjima, dok u višim slojevima veće zatopljenje zahvaća uglavnom kontinentalne dijelove Sjeverne hemisfere. Porast temperature na 300 hPa popraćen je zahlađenjem nad polarnim područjima. Na nivoima iznad 300 hPa dolazi do globalnog pada temperature. Signifikantne promjene mlazne struje javljaju se na Sjevernoj hemisferi te su izraženije u zimu. Do značajnog porasta stratiformne oborine dolazi na zimskoj hemisferi u višim geografskim širinama, dok se smanjenje javlja uglavnom iznad oceana. Signifikantan porast konvektivne oborine javlja se ljeti iznad kontinenata Sjeverne hemisfere. U južnom dijelu tropskog Pacifika u obje sezone dolazi do smanjenja stratiformne i konvektivne oborine. Također je pokazano da neizravni utjecaj porasta koncentracija CO2, tj. promjene donjih graničnih uvjeta koje su posljedica porasta CO2 imaju veći doprinos zatopljenju troposfere od izravnog utjecaja koji se odvija putem apsorpcijsko-radijacijskih procesa na samim molekulama CO2

Utjecaj leda na površini mora na sezonske klimatske promjene

The sensitivity of the atmospheric circulation to a different specification of sea-ice temperature and its seasonal cycle is analysed from the 50-year long integrations with SPEEDY, an intermediate complexity atmospheric general circulation model (AGCM). This impact is inferred from the difference between model atmospheric states obtained with and without the inclusion of the thermodynamic effects of sea ice. The two experiments with sea ice were made – the first one used climatological monthly mean temperatures for sea ice (derived from ERA–15 data), whereas in the second experiment the sea-ice temperature was determined by a thermodynamic model embedded into the SPEEDY code. It is shown that the thermodynamic model tends to amplify the seasonal cycle of temperature. In the boreal winter, the inclusion of the thermodynamic model for sea-ice temperature leads to a general cooling of the model atmosphere at high latitudes (when compared with the experiment with climatological sea ice), associated with the reduction in geopotential heights and the strengthening of zonal winds. It also reduces the extent and amount of cloud cover in the mid- and high latitudes. Atmospheric cooling could be directly linked to the increased sea-ice seasonal cycle, because the increased albedo over sea ice reduces incoming solar radiation and further stabilises already cold air. Some of the changes induced by sea ice extend throughout the whole depth of the model atmosphere and could be linked directly to strong meridional differential temperature gradients. In addition, some seasonally varying symmetry between the Northern and the Southern Hemisphere is also found. In summer when the receding sea ice is included in model integration, the opposite effects are seen: differential temperature gradients are of the opposite sign, the atmosphere is warmed thus effecting a reduction in zonal winds and an increase in cloudiness. These effects are stronger in amplitude than those associated with the maximum winter extent of sea ice, suggesting that ocean heat flux from the ice-free water together with increased solar radiation and convection bear a strong mark on the model atmosphere.Utjecaj leda na površini mora na opću cirkulaciju atmosfere razmatran je pomoću relativno jednostavnog atmosferskog globalnog cirkulacijskog modela (nazvanog Speedy). Posebna je pažnja posvećena sezonskim promjenama raspodjele leda te njegovom termodinamičkom utjecaju. U tu su svrhu definirana dva eksperimenta: prvi koristi klimatološke mjesečne temperature leda na površini mora (dobivenih pomoću ERA–15 podataka), dok drugi eksperiment uključuje termodinamički model za dobivanje temperatura leda. U oba eksperimenta je integracija modelom izvedena u trajanju od 50 godina. Rezultati pokazuju da termodinamički model pojačava sezonski ciklus temperature. Tako tijekom zime uključivanje termodinamičkog modela uzrokuje dodatno hlađenje atmosfere viših geografskih širina u odnosu na temperature dobivene integracijom modela s klimatološkim vrijednostima temperature leda na površini mora. Takva temperaturna raspodjela praćena je smanjenjem visina geopotencijalnih ploha te jačanjem zonalnog vjetra. Također je modelom dobivena i smanjena naoblaka u području srednjih i viših geografskih širina. Hlađenje atmosfere može se izravno povezati sa sezonskim ciklusom jer led na površini mora povećava albedo te na taj način smanjuje upadno sunčevo zračenje, a time dodatno stabilizira ionako hladni zrak. Neke od promjena uzrokovane ledom na površini mora se protežu kroz cijelu modeliranu atmosferu. Takvo ponašanje može se izravno povezati s jakim meridionalnim gradijentim temperature. Nadalje, uočena je određena sezonska simetričnost između Sjeverne i Južne Hemisfere. Tijekom ljeta kad je smanjen ledeni pokrov, model daje suprotne rezultate od onih dobivenih za zimsku sezonu: atmosfera je toplija uz slabljenje zonalnog vjetra i povećanu naoblaku. Ove promjene imaju veću amplitudu od onih povezanih s maksimalnom količinom ledenog pokrova tijekom zime. Taj rezultat upućuje na to da toplinski tokovi sa slobodne površine mora zajedno s povećanim sunčevim zračenjem i konvekcijom imaju značajan utjecaj na modeliranu atmosferu

Hepatitis B virus genotyping and detection of reverse transcriptase drug resistance mutations

Približno 257 milijuna osoba u svijetu boluje od kronične infekcije virusom hepatitisa B, što u slučaju neliječenja dovodi do ciroze jetre ili hepatocelularnog karcinoma. Virus hepatitisa B je DNA virus s reverznom transkriptazom (RT) koja nema egzonukleaznu aktivnost, što rezultira visokom stopom mutacija. Infekcija se najčešće liječi kompeticijskim inhibitorima reverzne transkriptaze koji ometaju replikaciju virusa. Kao posljedica selekcijskog pritiska uzrokovanog terapijom, ali i imunosnim odgovorom, javljaju se mutacije koje mogu dovesti do rezistencije. Cilj ovog istraživanja bio je po prvi puta odrediti genotipove virusa HBV u 30 ispitanika iz Hrvatske te mutacije koje su odgovorne za rezistenciju na inhibitore RT kao i one odgovorne za izbjegavanje imunosnog odgovora. Sangerovim sekvenciranjem interdomene A-B gena za RT te analizom sekvencija u algoritmu Geno2Pheno određeni su genotipovi te tražene mutacije. Od deset HBV genotipova koji su identificirani u svijetu, u Hrvatskoj su prisutni genotip A (A2) u 20% i genotip D (D1, D2, D3) u 80% ispitanika. U dva ispitanika genotipa A detektirane su mutacije koje uzrokuju rezistenciju na inhibitore RT. Mutacije za izbjegavanje imunosnog odgovora detektirane su u 6 ispitanika genotipa A te u 8 ispitanika genotipa D. Distribucija genotipova kao i prevalencija mutacija odgovara onima zabilježenim u ostalim zemljama Europe.Approximately 257 million people in the world have had chronic hepatitis B virus infection, which, in case of non-treatment, causes liver cirrhosis or hepatocellular carcinoma. Hepatitis B virus is a DNA virus with a reverse transcriptase (RT) lacking exonuclease activity resulting in a high rate of viral mutations. Infection is mostly treated with competitive inhibitors of reverse transcriptase that obstruct the virus replication. The consequences of selective pressure caused by treatment as well as the immune response, may be the mutations leading to resistance. The goal of this research was to define the genotypes of HBV for the first time in a group of 30 examinees from Croatia and define the mutations responsible for the resistance to the RT inhibitors as well as the immuno-escape mutations. By sequencing A-B interdomain of the HBV RT gene by Sanger method and analysis of the sequences in the Geno2Pheno algorithm has determined virus genotypes and mutations. Out of the ten genotypes identified in the world, genotype A (A2) is present in 20% and genotype D (D1, D2, D3) in 80% of examinees in Croatia. In two genotype A examinees a mutation was detected, which caused resistance to the RT inhibitors. Immune-escape mutations were detected in 6 genotype A examinees and 8 genotype D examinees. Distribution of genotypes as well as the mutation prevalence are similar to those recorded in the other European countries

Statistical view of cancer incidence in Croatia

Maligne su bolesti vodeći problem u zdravstvu. Smrtnost od raka u Republici Hrvatskoj spada na drugo mjesto. Oboljenje od raka opisujemo kao narušavanje integriteta organizma. Poznato je kako se pacijentovo psihološko stanje uvelike ocrtava na ishod bolesti i lijeĉenja pa je veoma bitno ukloniti sve psihološke barijere koje ometaju lijeĉenje i usporavaju oporavak. Prevencija malignih bolesti moţe se podijeliti na dvije osnovne razine, primarnu i sekundarnu. Najbitnija mjera primarne prevencije je probir (screening). Hrvatska Liga protiv raka najstarija je udruga za borbu protiv raka. Zadatak medicinskog osoblja, odnosno lijeĉnika onkologa i medicinskih sestara posebice jest ne samo lijeĉenje i ublaţavanje simptoma malignih bolesti, nego i preko raznih edukativnih i savjetodavnih aktivnosti pomagati u podizanju razine zdravstvene svijesti i usvajanju zdravih stilova ţivota koji spadaju u prevenciju nastanka malignih oboljenja, takoĊer i naglasiti stupanj nasljednosti bolesti. Brojevni podaci i statistiĉka analiza podataka preuzetih iz Registra za rak, ukazuju nam na povećan porast oboljenja ţena u 2014. godini sa zabiljeţenih 10 045 sluĉajeva, dok to kod muškaraca nije tako, te je najveća incidencija nastanka bila 2009. sa 11 483 sluĉaja. Postoje statistiĉki ekstremno znaĉajne razlike meĊu spolovima s obzirom na incidenciju raka po zajedniĉkim sijelima. S druge strane vidljiva su odreĊena podudaranja u nekim sijelima raka prema spolu. Rak debelog crijeva spada na drugo mjesto uĉestalosti nastanka i kod muškaraca 1 884 oboljelih i kod ţena, 1 243 sluĉajeva za 2014. Najviša stopa nastanka raka ovisna o broju stanovnika je u gradu Zagrebu, 3 472 sluĉajeva za 2014. godinu, samim tim Zagrebaĉkoj ţupaniji te u ţupanijama sa najvećim brojem stanovnika – Rijeka, Osijek, Split

ERYTHEMALLY EFFECTIVE UV RADIATION IN ZAGREB DURING MAY 1999

This paper is a presentation of erythemally effective irradiance measurements carried out in Zagreb, Croatia. The amounts of UV irradiance are expressed as erythemally effective dosages in MEDh-1, where one MED equals 250 Jm-2. The paper presents the results obtained in May 1999. The maximal and minimal noontime means of erythemally effective irradiance were 3.149 MEDh-1 and 0.508 MEDh-1, respectively. The daily course in clear sky conditions has a bell-shape distribution. For cloudy sky, the daily course curve is asymmetrical with reduced amounts of erythemally effective dosages. Simultaneous measurements of global irradiation and relative humidity were used to examine their connection with erythemally effective dosages. The simple linear regression method has shown that the relationship between erythemally effective dosages (predictand) and global radiation (predictor) gives better results than the same method with relative humidity as a predictand. On the other hand, the highest value of the correlation coefficient was obtained by multiple linear regression including both predictors. However, the improvement was not significant compared to the results obtained by simple linear regression with global radiation as the only predictand