Selection of transthyretin amyloid inhibitors

Amyloidosis is a group of clinical disorders caused by the aggregation of specific proteins into abnormal extracellular deposits. Today, 31 different proteins have been linked to amyloid diseases including transthyretin-related amyloidosis (ATTR). ATTR occurs through the aggregation of either wild-type plasma protein transthyretin (TTR) or a mutated form. TTR is a homotetramer that under normal circumstances functions as a carrier of thyroxine and retinol binding protein. The aggregation cascade requires dissociation of the tetramer into monomers, and preventing this dissociation represents a potential mode of intervention. Interestingly, small molecules, referred as kinetic stabilizers, can bind to TTR’s thyroxine-binding site (TBS) and such molecules are currently being used as a therapeutic approach to impair tetramer dissociation. The efficacy of TTR stabilization is directly correlated to the binding affinity of the ligand to TBS. However, the binding of the ligand to TTR in vivo can be affected by other plasma components resulting in poor efficacy. Thus, the selectivity of ligands is an important parameter. We have designed an assay where the ability to stabilize TTR can be directly evaluated in plasma and we have investigated the stabilizing effect of nine potential TTR binders (Paper I). The results, surprisingly, revealed that the binding affinity of molecules has a poor correlation to its selectivity. However, the nature of protein-ligand complex formation can also be described by enthalpic (∆H) and entropic (∆S) energy contributions. ∆H represents the change in chemical bonds and frequently requires a higher order of orientation compared to the ∆S component, which mainly represents the hydrophobic effect via the exclusion of water. We hypothesized that ligands possessing high ΔH in binding to their co-partner would also be more specific in a complex environment such as plasma. By applying a thermodynamic analysis using isothermal titration calorimetry, we found that the selectivity in plasma correlates well with the ∆H contribution and might, therefore, be a better predictor for selectivity. Luteolin was found to be a highly selective stabilizer of TTR and was investigated further (Paper II). The ligand displayed a significant rescuing effect in both cell culture and animal models. However, luteolin undergoes rapid enzymatic degradation in the liver and this impairs its use as a potential therapeutic drug. To attempt to circumvent this issue, we modified the most exposed hydroxyl group thus rendering the molecule inert towards glucuronidation (Paper III). The substitutions resulted in higher stability in the face of hepatic degradation molecules, but they also affected the selectivity in a negative manner. The screening for new TTR stabilizers resulted in the discovery of tetrabromobisphenol A, which displayed a very high selectivity (Paper IV). This study also included a comparison with the drug Vyndaqel™ which currently is in clinically use, and showed how the dosage could be altered to acquire a better level of saturation and possibly also a better clinical effect. Taken together we present new molecules with the ability to stabilize TTR, and these can serve as scaffolds for the design of new drugs. We present a method to measure the efficacy of a TTR-stabilizing drugs in a complex matrix and as well as a way to adjust the dosage of existing drugs. We also show that the selectivity of a drug is affected by the relative proportion of ∆H and ∆S, and this is of interest for drug design in general

Insight into the synthesis and electrical properties of alkali-earth-substituted Gd3GaO6 oxide-ion and proton conductors

International audienceNovel ionic conductors were prepared by substituting Ca2+ and Sr2+ for Gd3+ in Gd3GaO6. A microwave-assisted combustion technique was used to synthesize these compounds at 900 °C. SEM observations showed that both substituents promote grain growth during sintering. XRD proved that the Gd3-x(Ca,Sr)xGaO6-x/2 solid solutions are formed up to x = 0.10. Below 600 °C, the level of conductivity under wet Ar is higher than that of measured under dry atmospheres, thereby demonstrating the contribution of proton defects to the overall conductivity. The highest level of proton conduction, i.e. σ600°C = 1 × 10−3 S cm−1, was measured for Gd2.9Sr0.1GaO5.95 at 600 °C in wet Ar. At higher temperatures, only oxygen ions contribute to the conductivity. At 800 °C, a total oxide-ion conductivity of σ800°C = 1 × 10−2 S cm−1 was measured for the highest substitution level, i.e. x = 0.10. In both temperature ranges, activation energy associated with ionic transport decreases with the Me content as a result of an increase in grain size. Stability tests were successfully achieved as the structure of materials remains unchanged after different treatment under severe conditions. Conductivity measurements under varying oxygen partial pressures demonstrated that materials are purely oxide-ion conductors up to pO2 = 1 × 10−5 atm. At higher pO2, a p-type contribution appears

The flavonoid luteolin, but not luteolin-7-o-glucoside, prevents a transthyretin mediated toxic response

Transthyretin (TTR) is a homotetrameric plasma protein with amyloidogenic properties that has been linked to the development of familial amyloidotic polyneuropathy (FAP), familial amyloidotic cardiomyopathy, and senile systemic amyloidosis. The in vivo role of TTR is associated with transport of thyroxine hormone T4 and retinol-binding protein. Loss of the tetrameric integrity of TTR is a rate-limiting step in the process of TTR amyloid formation, and ligands with the ability to bind within the thyroxin binding site (TBS) can stabilize the tetramer, a feature that is currently used as a therapeutic approach for FAP. Several different flavonoids have recently been identified that impair amyloid formation. The flavonoid luteolin shows therapeutic potential with low incidence of unwanted side effects. In this work, we show that luteolin effectively attenuates the cytotoxic response to TTR in cultured neuronal cells and rescues the phenotype of a Drosophila melanogaster model of FAP. The plant-derived luteolin analogue cynaroside has a glucoside group in position 7 of the flavone A-ring and as opposed to luteolin is unable to stabilize TTR tetramers and thus prevents a cytotoxic effect. We generated high-resolution crystal-structures of both TTR wild type and the amyloidogenic mutant V30M in complex with luteolin. The results show that the A-ring of luteolin, in contrast to what was previously suggested, is buried within the TBS, consequently explaining the lack of activity from cynaroside. The flavonoids represent an interesting group of drug candidates for TTR amyloidosis. The present investigation shows the potential of luteolin as a stabilizer of TTR in vivo. We also show an alternative orientation of luteolin within the TBS which could represent a general mode of binding of flavonoids to TTR and is of importance concerning the future design of tetramer stabilizing drugs

Structural basis for transthyretin amyloid formation in vitreous body of the eye

Amyloid transthyretin (ATTR) amyloidosis is characterized by the abnormal accumulation of ATTR fibrils in multiple organs. However, the structure of ATTR fibrils from the eye is poorly understood. Here, we used cryo-EM to structurally characterize vitreous body ATTR fibrils. These structures were distinct from previously characterized heart fibrils, even though both have the same mutation and type A pathology. Differences were observed at several structural levels: in both the number and arrangement of protofilaments, and the conformation of the protein fibril in each layer of protofilaments. Thus, our results show that ATTR protein structure and its assembly into protofilaments in the type A fibrils can vary between patients carrying the same mutation. By analyzing and matching the interfaces between the amino acids in the ATTR fibril with those in the natively folded TTR, we are able to propose a mechanism for the structural conversion of TTR into a fibrillar form

Non‐apoptotic caspase activation ensures the homeostasis of ovarian somatic stem cells

Current evidence has associated caspase activation with the regulation of basic cellular functions without causing apoptosis. Malfunction of non-apoptotic caspase activities may contribute to specific neurological disorders, metabolic diseases, autoimmune conditions and cancers. However, our understanding of non-apoptotic caspase functions remains limited. Here, we show that non-apoptotic caspase activation prevents the intracellular accumulation of the Patched receptor in autophagosomes and the subsequent Patched-dependent induction of autophagy in Drosophila follicular stem cells. These events ultimately sustain Hedgehog signalling and the physiological properties of ovarian somatic stem cells and their progeny under moderate thermal stress. Importantly, our key findings are partially conserved in ovarian somatic cells of human origin. These observations attribute to caspases a pro-survival role under certain cellular conditions

Modifications of the 7-Hydroxyl Group of the Transthyretin Ligand Luteolin Provide Mechanistic Insights into Its Binding Properties and High Plasma Specificity

Amyloid formation of the plasma protein transthyretin (TTR) has been linked to familial amyloid polyneuropathy and senile systemic amyloidosis. Binding of ligands within its natural hormone binding site can stabilize the tetrameric structure and impair amyloid formation. We have recently shown that the flavonoid luteolin stabilizes TTR in human plasma with a very high selectivity. Luteolin, however, is inactivated in vivo via glucuronidation for which the preferred site is the hydroxy group at position 7 on its aromatic A-ring. We have evaluated the properties of two luteolin variants in which the 7-hydroxy group has been exchanged for a chlorine (7-Cl-Lut) or a methoxy group (7-MeO-Lut). Using an in vitro model, based on human liver microsomes, we verified that these modifications increase the persistence of the drug. Crystal structure determinations show that 7-Cl-Lut binds similarly to luteolin. The larger MeO substituent cannot be accommodated within the same space as the chlorine or hydroxy group and as a result 7-MeO-Lut binds in the opposite direction with the methoxy group in position 7 facing the solvent. Both 7-Cl-Lut and 7-MeO-Lut qualify as high-affinity binders, but in contrast to luteolin, they display a highly non-specific binding to other plasma components. The binding of the two conformations and the key-interactions to TTR are discussed in detail. Taken together, these results show a proof-of-concept that the persistence of luteolin towards enzymatic modification can be increased. We reveal two alternative high-affinity binding modes of luteolin to TTR and that modification in position 7 is restricted only to small substituents if the original orientation of luteolin should be preserved. In addition, the present work provides a general and convenient method to evaluate the efficacy of TTR-stabilizing drugs under conditions similar to an in vivo environment

Structure-based Virtual Screening Protocol for in silico Identification of Potential Thyroid Disrupting Chemicals Targeting Transthyretin

Thyroid disruption by xenobiotics is associated with a broad spectrum of severe adverse outcomes. One possible molecular target of thyroid hormone disrupting chemicals (THDCs) is transthyretin (TTR), a thyroid hormone transporter in vertebrates. To better understand the interactions between TTR and THDCs, we determined the crystallographic structures of human TTR in complex with perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS), perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), and 2,2',4,4'-tetrahydroxybenzophenone (BP2). The molecular interactions between the ligands and TTR were further characterized using molecular dynamics simulations. A structure-based virtual screening (VS) protocol was developed with the intention of providing an efficient tool for the discovery of novel TTR-binders from the Tox21 inventory. Among the 192 predicted binders, 12 representatives were selected, and their TTR binding affinities were studied with isothermal titration calorimetry, of which seven compounds had binding affinities between 0.26 and 100 mu M. To elucidate structural details in their binding to TTR, crystal structures were determined of TTR in complex with four of the identified compounds including 2,6-dinitro-p-cresol, bisphenol S, clonixin, and triclopyr. The compounds were found to bind in the TTR hormone binding sites as predicted. Our results show that the developed VS protocol is able to successfully identify potential THDCs, and we suggest that it can be used to propose THDCs for future toxicological evaluations

Scanning electron microscopy as a tool for evaluating morphology of amyloid structures formed on surface plasmon resonance chips

We demonstrate the use of Scanning Electron microscopy (SEM) in combination with Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR) to probe and verify the formation of amyloid and its morphology on an SPR chip. SPR is a technique that measures changes in the immobilized weight on the chip surface and is frequently used to probe the formation and biophysical properties of amyloid structures. In this context it is of interest to also monitor the morphology of the formed structures. The SPR chip surface is made of a layer of gold, which represent a suitable material for direct analysis of the surface using SEM. The standard SPR chip used here (CM5-chip, GE Healthcare, Uppsala, Sweden) can easily be disassembled and directly analyzed by SEM. In order to verify the formation of amyloid fibrils in our experimental conditions we analyzed also in-solution produced structures by using Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM). For further details and experimental findings, please refer to the article published in Journal of Molecular Biology, (Brännström K. et al., 2018) [1].Refers to: Kristoffer Brännström, Tohidul Islam, Anna L. Gharibyan, Irina Iakovleva, Lina Nilsson, Cheng Choo Lee, Linda Sandblad, Annelie Pamrén, Anders Olofsson. The Properties of Amyloid-β Fibrils Are Determined by their Path of Formation. Journal of Molecular Biology, Volume 430, Issue 13, 22 June 2018, Pages 1940-1949</p

Expression of adenosine receptors in monocytes from patients with bronchial asthma.

Adenosine is generated from adenosine triphosphate, which is released by stressed and damaged cells. Adenosine levels are significantly increased in patients with bronchial asthma (BA) and mediate mast cell degranulation and bronchoconstriction. Over the last decade, increasing evidence has shown that adenosine can modulate the innate immune response during monocytes differentiation towards mature myeloid cells. These adenosine-differentiated myeloid cells, characterized by co-expression of monocytes/macrophages and dendritic cell markers such as CD14 and CD209, produce high levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines, thus contributing to the pathogenesis of BA and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. We found that expression of ADORA2A and ADORA2B are increased in monocytes obtained from patients with BA, and are associated with the generation of CD14(pos)CD209(pos) pro-inflammatory cells. A positive correlation between expression of ADORA2B and IL-6 was identified in human monocytes and may explain the increased expression of IL-6 mRNA in asthmatics. Taken together, our results suggest that monocyte-specific expression of A2 adenosine receptors plays an important role in pro-inflammatory activation of human monocytes, thus contributing to the progression of asthma