The economic costs and ecological benefits of protected areas for biodiversity conservation

Conservation science acknowledges that economic cost and ecological benefit information is important for effective biodiversity conservation decision making. Obtaining this information for protected areas has proven difficult, however. This dissertation explores various aspects of obtaining information on the costs and benefits of protected areas in an effort to support applied conservation. Here I present a set of studies that 1) examine the threat and cost of plant invasion on protected areas, both for cumulative invasion and 2) across species that differ in their management priority, 3) provide a method for measuring the benefit of forest conservation, and 4) describe the conservation benefit implications from multiple conservation organizations working in the same region. The first two studies show that while conservation needs and prior costs can be estimated, there is no evidence that past expenditures relate to future budget requirements. This result is the impetus for the next study, where I develop a method to estimate the conservation benefit of forest protection using satellite imagery so that conservation professionals can better assess the relationship between conservation actions and outcomes. The final study reveals that competition for limited funding affects how conservation organizations allocate their resources, resulting in variation in benefit that depends on the organizations\u27 priority alignment. Overall, my dissertation reinforces the importance of properly accounting for costs and benefits in conservation planning and provides insight and tools to help achieve that outcome

Standardized reporting of the costs of management interventions for biodiversity conservation

Effective conservation management interventions must combat threats and deliver conservation benefits at costs that can be achieved within limited budgets. Considerable effort has focused on measuring the potential benefits of conservation interventions but explicit quantification of implementation costs has been rare. Even when costs have been quantified, haphazard and inconsistent reporting means that published values are difficult to interpret. This reporting deficiency hinders progress towards building a collective understanding of the costs of management interventions across projects, and thus limits our ability to identify efficient solutions to conservation problems or attract adequate funding. We address this challenge by proposing a standardized approach to describing costs reported for conservation interventions. These standards call for researchers and practitioners to ensure the cost data they collect and report on provide enough contextual information that readers and future users can interpret the data appropriately. We suggest these standards be adopted by major conservation organizations, conservation science institutions, and journals, so that cost reporting is comparable between studies. This would support shared learning and enhance our ability to identify and perform cost-effective conservation.Funding was provided by CEED (GDI and workshop), an ARC Laureate Fellowship (HPP, BM, VA and JM), Arcadia (WJS), the Natural Environment Research Council (LVD, NE/K015419/1; NE/N014472/1) and the Wildlife Conservation Society (AJP)

Engaging rural Australian communities in National Science Week helps increase visibility for women researchers

During a week-long celebration of science, run under the federally-supported National Science Week umbrella, the Catch a Rising Star: women in Queensland research (CaRS) program flew scientists who identify as women to regional and remote communities in the Australian State of Queensland. The aim of the project was twofold: first, to bring science to remote and regional communities in a large, economically diverse state; and second, to determine whether media and public engagement provide career advancement opportunities for women scientists. This paper focuses on the latter goal. The data show: 1) a substantial majority (> 80%) of researchers thought the training and experience provided by the program would help develop her career as a research scientist in the future; 2) the majority (65%) thought the program would help relate her research to end users, industry partners, or stakeholders in the future; and, 3) analytics can help create a compelling narrative around engagement metrics and help to quantify influence. During the weeklong project, scientists reached 600,000 impressions on one social media platform (Twitter) using a program hashtag. The breadth and depth of the project outcomes indicate funding bodies and employers could use similar data as an informative source of metrics to support hiring and promotion decisions. Although this project focused on researchers who identify as women, the lessons learned are applicable to researchers representing a diverse range of backgrounds. Future surveys will help determine whether the CaRS program provided long-term career advantages to participating scientists and communities

Limitations of outsourcing on-the-ground biodiversity conservation

To counteract global species decline, modern biodiversity conservation engages in large projects, spends billions of dollars, and includes many organizations working simultaneously within regions. To add to this complexity, the conservation sector has hierarchical structure, where conservation actions are often outsourced by funders (foundations, government, etc.) to local organizations that work on-the-ground. In contrast, conservation science usually assumes that a single organization makes resource allocation decisions. This discrepancy calls for theory to understand how the expected biodiversity outcomes change when interactions between organizations are accounted for. Here, we used a game theoretic model to explore how biodiversity outcomes are affected by vertical and horizontal interactions between 3 conservation organizations: a funder that outsourced its actions and 2 local conservation organizations that work on-the-ground. Interactions between the organizations changed the spending decisions made by individual organizations, and thereby the magnitude and direction of the conservation benefits. We showed that funders would struggle to incentivize recipient organizations with set priorities to perform desired actions, even when they control substantial amounts of the funding and employ common contracting approaches to enhance outcomes. Instead, biodiversity outcomes depended on priority alignment across the organizations. Conservation outcomes for the funder were improved by strategic interactions when organizational priorities were well aligned, but decreased when priorities were misaligned. Meanwhile, local organizations had improved outcomes regardless of alignment due to additional funding in the system. Given that conservation often involves the aggregate actions of multiple organizations with different objectives, strategic interactions between organizations need to be considered if we are to predict possible outcomes of conservation programs or costs of achieving conservation targets

Predicting the presence and cover of management relevant invasive plant species on protected areas

Invasive species are a management concern on protected areas worldwide. Conservation managers need to predict infestations of invasive plants they aim to treat if they want to plan for long term management. Many studies predict the presence of invasive species, but predictions of cover are more relevant for management. Here we examined how predictors of invasive plant presence and cover differ across species that vary in their management priority. To do so, we used data on management effort and cover of invasive plant species on central Florida protected areas. Using a zero-inflated multiple regression framework, we showed that protected area features can predict the presence and cover of the focal species but the same features rarely explain both. There were several predictors of either presence or cover that were important across multiple species. Protected areas with three days of frost per year or fewer were more likely to have occurrences of four of the six focal species. When invasive plants were present, their proportional cover was greater on small preserves for all species, and varied with surrounding household density for three species. None of the predictive features were clearly related to whether species were prioritized for management or not. Our results suggest that predictors of cover and presence can differ both within and across species but do not covary with management priority. We conclude that conservation managers need to select predictors of invasion with care as species identity can determine the relationship between predictors of presence and the more management relevant predictors of cover

Predicting the invadedness of protected areas

Aim: Invasive species management is an expensive priority on many protected areas but the magnitude of invasion can vary drastically from site to site. Conservation planners must consider this variability when they plan for treatment across multiple protected areas. We examine the scope for predicting site invadedness and management costs from common protected area characteristics, a method that could be used to estimate the future management needs of a protected area network. Location: Three hundred and sixty-five protected areas across the state of Florida, USA. Methods: We use data on invasive plant cover and protected area features to predict invadedness and invasive species management funding allocation in a multiple regression framework. We then examine the relationship between invadedness and funding on a subset of 46 of the protected areas. Results: Invadedness (relative proportion of a protected area that is covered by invasive plants) was related to the size of a protected area and the number of surrounding households. However, the explained variation (9-50%) depended on the type of species occurrence data used; with models using approximated data on the area infested able to explain more of the variation than those that included data with GIS-calculated area infested. Cumulative funding investment at a protected area was also predicted by the number of surrounding households and protected area size. Yet, funding and invadedness were not correlated with one another. Main conclusions: Readily available data on protected area features were statistically related to variation in the invadedness of a protected area and were also associated with past management expenditures. This does not translate into a clear relationship between current invadedness and past expenditures, however. Our results suggest that basing predictions of future costs on current funding may not accurately represent budgetary needs

Waiting can be an optimal conservation strategy, even in a crisis discipline

Biodiversity conservation projects confront immediate and escalating threats with limited funding. Conservation theory suggests that the best response to the species extinction crisis is to spend money as soon as it becomes available, and this is often an explicit constraint placed on funding. We use a general dynamic model of a conservation landscape to show that this decision to "front-load" project spending can be suboptimal if a delay allows managers to use resources more strategically. Our model demonstrates the existence of temporal efficiencies in conservation management, which parallel the spatial efficiencies identified by systematic conservation planning. The optimal timing of decisions balances the rate of biodiversity decline (e.g., the relaxation of extinction debts, or the progress of climate change) against the rate at which spending appreciates in value ( e.g., through interest, learning, or capacity building). We contrast the benefits of acting and waiting in two ecosystems where restoration can mitigate forest bird extinction debts: South Australia's Mount Lofty Ranges and Paraguay's Atlantic Forest. In both cases, conservation outcomes cannot be maximized byfront-loading spending, and the optimal solution recommends substantial delays before managers undertake conservation actions. Surprisingly, these delays allow superior conservation benefits to be achieved, in less time than front loading. Our analyses provide an intuitive and mechanistic rationale for strategic delay, which contrasts with the orthodoxy of front loaded spending for conservation actions. Our results illustrate the conservation efficiencies that could be achieved if decision makers choose when to spend their limited resources, as opposed to just where to spend them

Coreopsis bakeri (Asteraceae; Coreopsideae), a new species from Florida, USA

Coreopsis bakeri (Asteraceae; Coreopsideae), an early blooming and very narrow-leaved perennial restricted to rare limestone glade habitats in northern Florida, is described as new. The plants most closely resemble Coreopsis lanceolata, a common species of the southeastern U.S., but have narrower, glabrous, and infolded leaves. In addition to phenotypic differences, the two species show divergence at two nuclear genes, the nuclear ITS and ETS regions, and for two chloroplast intergenic spacers (psbA-trnH and rpl32-trnL). Because of the rarity of C. bakeri and the very limited extent of its distinctive habitat, this species is in urgent need of protection. In addition, C. lanceolata is found in open areas near the limestone glades, and poses a potential threat through competition or hybridization

Experimental test for facilitation of seedling recruitment by the dominant bunchgrass in a fire-maintained savanna

Facilitative interactions between neighboring plants can influence community composition, especially in locations where environmental stress is a factor limiting competitive effects. The longleaf pine savanna of the southeastern United States is a threatened and diverse system where seedling recruitment success and understory species richness levels are regulated by the availability of moist microsites. We hypothesized that the dominant bunch grass species (Aristida stricta Michx.) would facilitate moist seedling microsites through shading, but that the effect would depend on stress gradients. Here, we examined the environmental properties modified by the presence of wiregrass and tested the importance of increased shade as a potential facilitative mechanism promoting seedling recruitment across spatial and temporal stress gradients. We showed that environmental gradients, season, and experimental water manipulation influence seedling success. Environmental properties were modified by wiregrass proximity in a manner that could facilitate seedling success, but we showed that shade alone does not provide a facilitative benefit to seedlings in this system