Characterization of milk production system and opportunity for market orientation: a case study of Mieso District, Oromia Region, Ethiopia

This study was conducted in Mieso district in western Hararghe Zone of Oromia Regional State to characterize milk production and marketing system and identify opportunity for market orientation. This study was initiated with the objectives of generating baseline data in the area of milk production and marketing system. The study was undertaken in five purposely selected rural kebeles of Mieso district; and these were Dire-kalu, Welda-jejeba, Hunde-misoma, Gena, and Huse-mendera. Farmers from each rural kebeles were selected using Proportional Probability to Size (PPS) approach for each rural kebele. A total of 120 farmers were selected based on the number of households. The sample households in each rural kebeles were stratified in to female and male headed households. For the market study, two market sites were purposively selected namely, Mieso and Asebot markets due to the accessibility of the area. Milk marketing was monitored over two seasons, i.e., rainy and dry seasons. The average pasture land size of the sampled households was 1 ha, with a range of 0.25-10 ha. On average, there were more number of goats (6.03 ± 0.30) holdings than cattle (5.69 ± 0.35) and camel (1.83 ± 0.92) per household. However, the average numbers of animals per species found in the studied rural kebeles was highest for goats (723), than for cattle (683) and camel (220). The proportion of female to male ratio of cattle in the district was 2.57: 1. Traditional hand milking was the major type of milking practices in the whole parts of studied area. During the study period, about 99.2 % of the households had milking cows, and 97.5 % of these households indicated that only female members of the household are responsible for milking. However, 2.5 % of the households indicate that not only females, but also males take part in milking of cows. Almost all of the households indicated that cows are milked twice during the wet season and once during the dry season. About 72 % of the respondents indicated that camels are milked up to thrice a day during the wet and dry seasons. Milk and milk product sale (96 % of the respondents) and crop sale (95 % of the respondents) take the highest percentage of source of income. All the respondents indicated that cattle, camels and goats are fed principally on communal natural pasture throughout the year. Agricultural byproducts, mainly crop residues of sorghum and maize are the major feed resources in the studied area. Traditionally, sorghum and maize plantation used as fodder for livestock feed, and it is locally called as chinki. As an additional feed, mineral soil salt, locally known as ‘‘haya’’, it is used by 40 % of the respondents during wet as well as in the dry season. All milk animals in the study area are indigenous breeds and have not been characterized. The overall mean (mean ± SE) age at first calving for cows and she camels were 52.49 ± 0.91 and 63.37 ± 1.55 months, respectively. The overall mean calving interval for cows and she camel were 16.01 ± 0.49 and 18.53 ± 1.02 months, respectively. The estimated mean milk yield/head/day was 1.24 ± 0.02 liter for cows and lactation yield per cow was 271.4 liters over an average lactation period of seven month (7.29 ± 0.17). Overall estimated mean camel milk yield/head/day was 2.4 ± 0.06 and lactation yield head was 797 liters over an average lactation period of eleven months. The estimated average total milk produced per household per day in the wet and dry seasons was 4.80 ± 0.22 and 2.37 ± 0.11 liters, respectively for cows. Similarly, the average total milk produce per household per day in the wet and dry seasons was 13.19 ± 0.945 and 7.63 ± 0.82 liters, respectively for camels. The majority of the households sale whole milk (78 %) than whey (4.2 %). Butter is produced for sell by about 67 % of the respondents. About 72% of the respondent indicated that they sale cow milk during both the dry and wet seasons. The average volume of cow and camel milk sold per household per day during the rainy season was 3.55 ± 0.28 and 3.61 ± 0.45 liters, respectively. However, during the dry season, the respective volumes decreased to 2.15 ± 0.22 and 2.58 ± 0.37 liters. Cow and camel milk supply to the market decreases by 39 % and 28 % during the dry season, respectively. This indicates that camel milk sale increases during the dry season. The amount of milk sold in Mieso market per day was significantly (P ≤ 0.05) higher for cow (496.6 ± 19.12 liters) as well as camel milk (187.89 ± 19.12 liters) than the Asebot market site. The price of cow and camel milk during the wet season is lower (1.88 ± 0.10 Birr/liter and 1.63 ± 0.10 Birr/liter) than during the dry season (3.38 ± 0.10 Birr/liter and 2.98 ± 0.10 Birr/liter), respectively. Generally, there are two milk marketing systems; namely, traditional milk associations or groups and the producer themselves (individual seller). The traditional milk association or group is locally known as ‘Faraqa Annanni’. From the total (n=94) households who sell milk, only 22 (23 %) were involved in the milk association or groups. An average amount of milk sale by group (3.94 ± 0.18 liter/person) were significantly (P≤ 0.05) higher than individual (1.64 ± 0.06 liter/person). The total amount of milk sold (liter/person/day) at the two market sites differed significantly, being higher in Mieso (3.27 ± 0.17 liters/person) than in Asebot (1.91 ± 0.06 liters/person). The number of individuals per Faraqa Annenni/day was not significantly (P > 0.05) different between Asebot (2.94 ± 0.12) and Mieso (3.05 ± 0.22). However, there was more number of seller groups in Mieso. This may be due to the involvement of pastoral milk seller groups from the adjacent district of Mullu in Somalia Region. As the logit regression result indicates the availability of Faraqa Annenni in the area had significant (P ≤ 0.1) positive relation with the participation decision of the household to sale cow milk. The other variable which has a significant (P ≤ 0.05) impact on the decision behavior of the household is its location from the market. As the model output indicates, the farther the household is away from the market center the less will be its participation to the cow milk sale. Education level of the household heads were negatively (P ≤ 0.05) correlated with participation decision on cow milk sale. This negative correlation of education level of the household heads with participation on cow milk sell indicates that rather than milk sale, decision on other activities were more. Contrary to the expectation, amount of goat and camel milk produced in the household were negatively and significantly (P≤ 0.01 and P≤ 0.1) related to market participation decision of the household on cow milk sale. This indicates that more production of camel and cow milk tends to shift the household consumption pattern from camel and goat milk to cow milk, which reduces the available cow milk for sale. Most of the respondents indicated that milk sale was highly affected by small milk quantity (73 %) followed by distance to market (38 %). Only 7.6 % of the respondents indicated cultural taboo as a limiting factor for milk market participation. Therefore, the figure indicating that this issue is not a serious problem in the area. Overall cattle and camel pre-weaning mortality rates were 61.7 ± 5.2 and 66.7± 14.7. Mortality due to diseases was identified as a major cause of loss in cattle (65% of respondents) and camels (67%) in the study area. Mastitis, Anthrax, pasteurolosis, diarrhea, Blackleg and FMD (Foot and Mouth Diseases) were the major diseases that affect cattle in the area. Only 33 % of the respondents indicated that they have access to extension services on dairy animal production. The farmers contact with extension staff once or twice a year and there is no strong and regular visit and follow-up. Generally, among the problems of dairy production in the area, seasonal feed and water shortage, security problem, and poor access to veterinary services were the major ones. In addition to this, low knowledge capacity and the limited number of the development agents were also reported to be common problems in the extension service. All milk animals in the study area have not been characterized. There is no any milk cooperatives organized in the area. Instead there are traditional self organized milk seller groups, Faraqa Annanni. Milk sale was highly affected by small milk quantity followed by distance to market. In addition, milk sale was also affected by non-availability of Faraqa Annanni in the area. Accordingly, improve the available natural pasture and implement rangeland management systems, introduce and develop improved forages as sole crops or integrated with cereal crop production should be made. There should due attention to the way of dealing with conflicts over use of resources in the district, conflict resolution method should be addressed and community should be a starting point for ideas to develop a strategic plan. There should be training for development agents and extension staff in the district about milk production, handling and processing techniques. It is necessary to improve animal health services through paravet training and drug supply system with close monitoring and supervision. Breed improvement should consider the multipurpose utility of local breeds, where it is feasible with improved feeding and proper management systems. Furthermore, establish milk collecting and processing unit through encouraging the already existing self organized group, ‘Faraqa Annanni’

Traditional cow and camel milk production and marketing in agropastoral and mixed crop-livestock systems: the case of Mieso District, Oromia Regional State, Ethiopia

This study was conducted to characterize the traditional milk production and marketing system, and to identify constraints and opportunities for further development. It was conducted in Mieso District of Oromia Regional State, located 300 km east of Addis Ababa and at about 200 km east of Adama. Five rural kebeles, Dire Kalu, Gena, Huse Mendera, Hunde Misoma and Welda Jejeba, that have milk production potential were selected. Farmers/agro-pastoralists from each rural kebele were also selected. Group discussion was conducted with key informants such as elders and experts in the Office of Pastoral and Rural Development to have an overview of the overall milk production and marketing system. The information generated in participatory rural appraisal phases was used for the preparation and development of a questionnaire for the formal survey. The formal survey was conducted by trained enumerators in 2005/06 using 120 farmers. To capture gender effects in the overall production system, the sample household on each rural kebele was stratified into female-and male-headed households. For the market study, from the three existing market sites, Mieso and Asebot markets were purposively selected. Milk marketing was monitored during the rainy and the dry seasons. A questionnaire was used to collect information on the amount of milk delivered, price and number of individuals who sell milk. During the monitoring phase, a diagnostic survey was undertaken to identify households that have lactating cows and/or camels in the selected five rural kebeles. There were generally two types of milk outlets identified in the district. These are traditional milk associations or groups and individual sellers. Feed scarcity, water shortage, security problem and limited access to veterinary services were identified as the major problems to dairy production and mortality due to diseases was also identified as a major cause of loss in cattle. The paper concludes with recommendations

Evaluation of the Efficacy of Crude Extracts of Salix subserrata and Silene macroselen for the treatment of rabies in Ethiopia

A study was conducted between November, 2007 and April, 2008 to evaluate the anti-rabies activity of the leaf of Salix subserrata and root of Silene macroselen which are traditionally used for the treatment of rabies in Bereh-Aleltu Woreda, North Shewa, Central Ethiopia. The study involved oral administration of crude extracts of Salix subserrata and Silene macroselen to Pasteur Virus (PV) strain rabies virus infected mice which were assigned into three treatment and one negative control groups. Chloroform, methanol 80% and aqueous extracts of the study plants were prepared using maceration technique. Statistical analysis was performed by one-way analysis of variance tests coupled to least significant difference to compare result between treatment and positive control groups. Of the 6 crude extracts, chloroform and methanol 80% of Silene macroselen and chloroform and aqueous of Salix subserrata were found to increase the survival time of mice significantly (P< 0.05). Nevertheless, aqueous extract of Silene macroselen and methanol 80% extract of Salix subserrata did not exhibit a significant effect on the survival time. 1 day and 2 days treatment groups of the chloroform extract of S. macroselen indicated significant difference on the survival time from the positive control (P< 0.05). The chloroform and aqueous extracts of S. subserrata and the methanol 80 % extract of S. macroselen in their 1 day and 3 days treatment showed significant difference on survival time from the positive control group (P< 0.05). The results obtained from the present work suggest good correlation between traditional therapeutic uses and the in vivo anti-rabies activity. Further characterization of the active ingredients would reveal useful compounds. Keywords: Anti-rabies, Ethno-pharmaceutical, Mice model, PV strain, Salix subserrata, Silene macrosele

Optical Characterization of Polyvinyl alcohol - Ammonium Nitrate Polymer Electrolytes Films

Polyvinyl alcohol – Ammonium Nitrate polymer electrolyte films were prepared by casting method. UV-Vis Double Beam Spectrophotometer in the wavelength range (190-1100) nm were used to investigate the optical properties. The optical constants such us, transmission spectra, refractive index, extinction coefficient, real and imaginary parts of the dielectric constant, optical band gaps, and optical conductance are found. It was found that the energy band gaps are decreased upon the increase of salts concentration. The values of the width of the tails of localized states in the forbidden gap of the films obtained from Urbach plots are varied from 0.64 to 1.16 eV. The real and imaginary part of dielectric constant of the polymer electrolyte films increases with increasing NH4NO3 concentration. The dielectric constant shows decreases abruptly in the wavelength (235-260) nm, and finally becomes constant with increase wavelength. Keywords: optical energy band gap; optical conductance; refractive index; extinction coefficient

Dog bite as a public health concern in Addis Ababa

Introduction: Animal bites and scratches represent the most important public health issue related to dogs and cats because of the risk of rabies transmission associated with physical, psychological trauma and wound infection. Objective: The study was aimed at estimating the prevalence of animal bite of human beings in Addis Ababa. Methods: Data on the kind of animal, age of the patients, gender, site of bites and /or scratch were collected from the registry book and analyzed using SPSS version 11.5. Results: A total of 1299 cases of bite and/or scratch were reported for the period September 2008 to August 2009. The majority of bites were made by dogs where stray dogs are much higher (X2 = 0.83, p= 0.36). There is statistically highly significant difference of bites between sex (p = 0.001) and between age group (F = 5.41, p=0.02). The animal bite made by dogs was higher on legs (55.6 %) followed by hands (26.45 %) and multiple bites (7.51 %). Conclusions: The majority of bites were attributed to stray dogs followed by cats, horses, donkeys. To reduce the problem a preventative public education is suggested

Overview of Rabies in and around Addis Ababa, in Animals Examined in EHNRI Zoonoses Laboratory Between, 2003 and 2009

A retrospective data on the number of confirmed animal rabies cases and applied rabies control measures over the period 2003-2009 were collected and analyzed to elucidate the situation of animal rabies in and around Addis Ababa. Over the last seven years, 2517 animals brain tissue samples from Dogs, Cats, Cattle, Horses, Donkeys, Shoats, Hyenas and Monkeys were examined for rabies using Fluorescent Antibody Test. Out of all samples examined, 76.9% (n=1936) were positive for rabies antigen. A statistically significant difference (χ2 = 34.08(1),

The status of rabies in Ethiopia: A retrospective record review

Background: Rabies, a viral disease that affects all warm-blooded animals, is widespread in many regions of the world. Human rabies, transmitted by dogs is an important public health issue in Ethiopia. To-date, effective rabies control program still remains to be a reality and needs to be strengthened..Objective: Reviewing of recorded data to generate information on the status of rabies in Ethiopia for the year 2001-2009.Methods: A retrospective data were used from the Ethiopian Health and Nutrition Research Institute rabies case record book registered between 2001 and 2009.Results: The fatal human cases during the period of study were 386 humans with annual range of 35 to 58. The over all post exposure treatment for humans was 17,204 within and around Addis Ababa. During the same period, 20,414 suspected rabid animals were clinically examined; nevertheless, only 10%were positive for rabies. Among 3,460 animal brains investigated in the laboratory with FAT, 75% were confirmed as rabies positive. The production and distribution of anti-rabies vaccine reached 130,673 treatment doses for human vaccine and 85,055 doses for animal vaccine respectively in the period of 2001-2009.Conclusion: The recorded data showed the underestimate of rabies diagnosis, post exposure prophylaxis and fatal human cases, which could be attributed due to the absence of national rabies surveillance system. Therefore, It is of paramount importance to assess and map the national picture of rabies within a given time interval to launch a national rabies control strategy. [Ethiop. J. Health Dev. 2010;24(2):127-132

Synthesis and Pharmacological Evaluation of Novel Schiff Base Analogues of 3-(4-amino) Phenylimino) 5-fluoroindolin-2-one

In our study, a series of novel 3-(4-(benzylideneamino) phenylimino) 4-fluoroindolin-2-one derivatives were synthesized and characterized by spectral (I.R, 1H NMR, mass) and elemental analysis. The title compounds (N1-N10) were evaluated for analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and ulcerogenic index activities. Results displayed that compound N3 exhibited significant analgesic activity. Among the title compounds studied, N2, N3, and N8 exhibited significant anti- inflammatory activity comparable to reference standard diclofenac sodium. Interestingly, the test compounds showed only mild ulcerogenic side effect when compared to aspirin