Periodic Fluctuation of Tidal Volumes Further Improves Variable Ventilation in Experimental Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome

In experimental acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), random variation of tidal volumes (VT ) during volume controlled ventilation improves gas exchange and respiratory system mechanics (so-called stochastic resonance hypothesis). It is unknown whether those positive effects may be further enhanced by periodic VT fluctuation at distinct frequencies, also known as deterministic frequency resonance.We hypothesized that the positive effects of variable ventilation on lung functionmay be further amplified by periodic VT fluctuation at specific frequencies. In anesthetized and mechanically ventilated pigs, severe ARDS was induced by saline lung lavage and injurious VT (double-hit model). Animals were then randomly assigned to 6 h of protective ventilation with one of four VT patterns: (1) random variation of VT (WN); (2) P04, main VT frequency of 0.13Hz; (3) P10, main VT frequency of 0.05Hz; (4) VCV, conventional non-variable volume controlled ventilation. In groups with variable VT , the coefficient of variation was identical (30%). We assessed lung mechanics and gas exchange, and determined lung histology and inflammation. Compared to VCV, WN, P04, and P10 resulted in lower respiratory system elastance (63 ± 13 cm H2O/L vs. 50 ± 14 cm H2O/L, 48.4 ± 21 cm H2O/L, and 45.1 ± 5.9 cm H2O/L respectively, P < 0.05 all), but only P10 improved PaO2/FIO2 after 6 h of ventilation (318 ± 96 vs. 445 ± 110mm Hg, P < 0.05). Cycle-by-cycle analysis of lung mechanics suggested intertidal recruitment/de-recruitment in P10. Lung histologic damage and inflammation did not differ among groups. In this experimental model of severe ARDS, periodic VT fluctuation at a frequency of 0.05Hz improved oxygenation during variable ventilation, suggesting that deterministic resonance adds further benefit to variable ventilation

Distribution of transpulmonary pressure during one-lung ventilation in pigs at different body positions

Background. Global and regional transpulmonary pressure (PL) during one-lung ventilation (OLV) is poorly characterized. We hypothesized that global and regional PL and driving PL (ΔPL) increase during protective low tidal volume OLV compared to two-lung ventilation (TLV), and vary with body position.Methods. In sixteen anesthetized juvenile pigs, intra-pleural pressure sensors were placed in ventral, dorsal, and caudal zones of the left hemithorax by video-assisted thoracoscopy. A right thoracotomy was performed and lipopolysaccharide administered intravenously to mimic the inflammatory response due to thoracic surgery. Animals were ventilated in a volume-controlled mode with a tidal volume (VT) of 6 mL kg−1 during TLV and of 5 mL kg−1 during OLV and a positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) of 5 cmH2O. Global and local transpulmonary pressures were calculated. Lung instability was defined as end-expiratory PL&lt;2.9 cmH2O according to previous investigations. Variables were acquired during TLV (TLVsupine), left lung ventilation in supine (OLVsupine), semilateral (OLVsemilateral), lateral (OLVlateral) and prone (OLVprone) positions randomized according to Latin-square sequence. Effects of position were tested using repeated measures ANOVA.Results. End-expiratory PL and ΔPL were higher during OLVsupine than TLVsupine. During OLV, regional end-inspiratory PL and ΔPL did not differ significantly among body positions. Yet, end-expiratory PL was lower in semilateral (ventral: 4.8 ± 2.9 cmH2O; caudal: 3.1 ± 2.6 cmH2O) and lateral (ventral: 1.9 ± 3.3 cmH2O; caudal: 2.7 ± 1.7 cmH2O) compared to supine (ventral: 4.8 ± 2.9 cmH2O; caudal: 3.1 ± 2.6 cmH2O) and prone position (ventral: 1.7 ± 2.5 cmH2O; caudal: 3.3 ± 1.6 cmH2O), mainly in ventral (p ≤ 0.001) and caudal (p = 0.007) regions. Lung instability was detected more often in semilateral (26 out of 48 measurements; p = 0.012) and lateral (29 out of 48 measurements, p &lt; 0.001) as compared to supine position (15 out of 48 measurements), and more often in lateral as compared to prone position (19 out of 48 measurements, p = 0.027).Conclusion. Compared to TLV, OLV increased lung stress. Body position did not affect stress of the ventilated lung during OLV, but lung stability was lowest in semilateral and lateral decubitus position

Protective intraoperative ventilation with higher versus lower levels of positive end-expiratory pressure in obese patients (PROBESE): study protocol for a randomized controlled trial

Background: Postoperative pulmonary complications (PPCs) increase the morbidity and mortality of surgery in obese patients. High levels of positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) with lung recruitment maneuvers may improve intraoperative respiratory function, but they can also compromise hemodynamics, and the effects on PPCs are uncertain. We hypothesized that intraoperative mechanical ventilation using high PEEP with periodic recruitment maneuvers, as compared with low PEEP without recruitment maneuvers, prevents PPCs in obese patients. Methods/design The PRotective Ventilation with Higher versus Lower PEEP during General Anesthesia for Surgery in OBESE Patients (PROBESE) study is a multicenter, two-arm, international randomized controlled trial. In total, 2013 obese patients with body mass index ≥35 kg/m2 scheduled for at least 2 h of surgery under general anesthesia and at intermediate to high risk for PPCs will be included. Patients are ventilated intraoperatively with a low tidal volume of 7 ml/kg (predicted body weight) and randomly assigned to PEEP of 12 cmH2O with lung recruitment maneuvers (high PEEP) or PEEP of 4 cmH2O without recruitment maneuvers (low PEEP). The occurrence of PPCs will be recorded as collapsed composite of single adverse pulmonary events and represents the primary endpoint. Discussion To our knowledge, the PROBESE trial is the first multicenter, international randomized controlled trial to compare the effects of two different levels of intraoperative PEEP during protective low tidal volume ventilation on PPCs in obese patients. The results of the PROBESE trial will support anesthesiologists in their decision to choose a certain PEEP level during general anesthesia for surgery in obese patients in an attempt to prevent PPCs. Trial registration ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT02148692. Registered on 23 May 2014; last updated 7 June 2016. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13063-017-1929-0) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users

Periodic Variable Mechanical Ventilation and Dynamics of Recruitment and De-recruitment in Experimental Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome

Background Controlled mechanical ventilation with randomly variable tidal volume patterns has been shown to improve gas exchange and respiratory system mechanics compared to conventional ventilation in numerous experimental models of acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). Multiple mechanisms have been proposed to explain this phenomenon called stochastic resonance. The recruitment of collapsed lung regions has been proposed as the dominant mechanism, but the role of respiratory system recruitment and de-recruitment dynamics during variable ventilation and the influence of periodic instead of random variation has not been elucidated. Objectives The primary objective of this thesis was to investigate the effects of periodic tidal volume patterns during variable ventilation on functional parameters with a special focus on gas exchange, respiratory system mechanics and cardiovascular interactions. Further aims were to elucidate the relationship between recruitment and de-recruitment dynamics and recruitment effects of random variable ventilation as well as the impact of an excessive increase in pattern period during variable ventilation on respiratory system mechanics. Finally, the relationship between recruitment effects during variable ventilation and the recruitment and de-recruitment dynamics as well as the ability of random variable ventilation to prevent de-recruitment are to be clarified. Methods Recruitment and de-recruitment dynamics were investigated based on the analysis of the time course of dynamic respiratory system elastance in a double-hit model of ARDS in pigs, a model of lung inflammation in rats, and in silico. The effects of periodic variable ventilation were studied for a wide range of pattern periods using a non-linear computational model of respiratory system mechanics, and in two experimental studies: Partial pressure of oxygen in arterial blood (PaO2) was the primary outcome of the longitudinal study during six hours of therapy in a double-hit model of ARDS in pigs. A cross-over study in a hydrochloric acid-induced model of ARDS in rats was performed to investigate the effects of periodic variable ventilation on baroreflex and respiratory sinus arrhythmia in context of the improvement of the primary end-point PaO2. In both studies, tidal volume patterns were chosen to have main periods overlapping with the dynamics of cardiovascular and respiratory sub-systems. Results and Discussion Periodic variable ventilation, but not random variable ventilation, improved PaO2 compared to conventional ventilation in the double hit model of ARDS. In both experimental studies, variable ventilation independent of pattern period improved respiratory system elastance. The study in silico indicated that periodic patterns have no additional positive effect on respiratory system mechanics compared to random patterns, but will attenuate recruitment for an excessive increase in pattern period. Baroreflex and respiratory sinus arrhythmia were affected by periodic tidal volume patterns in the acid-induced ARDS model; however, pattern period was associated with a decrease in PaO2. Recruitment and de-recruitment dynamics in the experimental model were similar to values derived by analysis of dynamic computed tomography according to literature. In the computational study, re-cruitment during random variable ventilation was maximised for specific values of recruitment and de-recruitment dynamics. Recruitment dynamics were lower during random variable ventilation compared to conventional recruitment manoeuvres, however in the range of de-recruitment dynamics of the respective model. Consequently, random variable ventilation with a coefficient of variation of 30 % was sufficient to prevent an increase of respiratory system elastance during ventilation in the study on acute lung inflammation in rats. Conclusion The asymmetry between recruitment and de-recruitment dynamics, which could be quantified by the analysis of the time course of dynamic elastance, was associated with recruitment during random variable ventilation in numerical simulations. Periodic variable ventilation improved arterial oxygenation to a clinically relevant extent without concomitant improvement of lung recruitment compared to random variable ventilation in a double-hit model of ARDS. Cardiovascular-respiratory interactions and asymmetry of recruitment and de-recruitment dynamics were not associated with this improvement.Hintergrund In zahlreichen experimentellen Modellen des Akuten Atemnotsyndroms (ARDS) konnte gezeigt werden, dass die kontrollierte maschinelle Beatmung mit zufällig variablen Tidalvolumen pro Atemzug den Gasaustausch und die Atemmechanik im Vergleich zur konventionellen maschinellen Beatmung deutlich verbessert. Es wurden mehrere Mechanismen zur Erklärung dieses Phänomens, der Stochastischen Resonanz, vorgeschlagen. Die Wiedereröffnung kollabierter Lungenareale (Rekrutierung) ist dabei als dominanter Mechanismus der variablen Beatmung identifiziert wurden. Die Rolle der Dynamik von Rekrutierung und Derekrutierung sowie der Einfluss von Periodizität an Stelle von Zufälligkeit in der Sequenz der Tidalvolumina während Zufälliger Variabler Maschineller Beatmung (ZVB) wurde bisher lediglich in numerischen Simulationen evaluiert. Fragestellung Hauptziel dieser Arbeit war es, die Auswirkungen der Periodischen Variablen Maschinellen Beatmung (PVB) auf Gasaustausch, Mechanik des Respiratorischen Systems sowie Kardiovaskulärer Wechselwirkungen zu untersuchen. Ferner sollten mögliche Mechanismen der PVB identifiziert werden. Der Zusammenhang zwischen der Rekrutierungsdynamik und den Rekrutierungseffekten der ZVB sowie den Auswirkungen einer übermäßigen Erhöhung der Periodendauer während der PVB auf die Mechanik des Respiratorischen System war ebenfalls zu untersuchen. Ferner war der Zusammenhang zwischen den Rekrutierungseffekten bei der ZVB und der Dynamik der Rekrutierung / Derekrutierung des Respiratorischen Systems zu untersuchen. Material und Methoden In einem nichtlinearen numerischen Modell der Atemmechanik wurden die Auswirkungen der PVB für einen breiten Bereich von Periodendauern untersucht. Die Dynamik der Rekrutierung und Derekrutierung der Lunge wurde basierend auf der Analyse des Zeitverlaufs der dynamischen Elastance des Respiratorischen Systems in einem Doppelhit-Modell des ARDS im Schwein, einem Modell der Lungenentzündung in der Ratte sowie in silico untersucht. Die Effekte der PVB auf Gasaustausch und Atemmechanik wurden in zwei experimentelle Studien in verschiedenen Modellen des experimentellen ARDS untersucht: Der Partialdruck von Sauerstoff im arteriellen Blut (PaO2 ) war die primäre Zielgröße in der Längsschnittuntersuchung während der sechsstündigen Therapie des experimentellen ARDS am Hausschwein, welches induziert wurde durch wiederholte Auswaschung von Surfaktant mit anschließender beatmungsinduzierter Lungenschädigung. In einer Cross-over-Studie an einem salzsäureinduzierten Modell des ARDS in Ratten wurden die Auswirkungen der PVB auf Baroreflex- und respiratorische Sinusarrhythmie im Zusammenhang mit dem primären Endpunkt PaO2 untersucht. Ergebnisse und Diskussion PVB jedoch nicht die ZVB, verbesserte den PaO2 im Vergleich zur konventionellen maschinellen Beatmung im Doppelhit-Modell des ARDS während sechstündiger Therapie. In beiden Studien verbesserte die PVB unabhängig von der Periodendauer die Elastance des Respiratorischen Systems. Die Simulationen am Computermodell bestätigten, dass periodische Muster keinen zusätzlichen positiven Effekt auf die Mechanik des Atmungssystems im Vergleich zu zufälligen Mustern haben, aber die Rekrutierung während Variabler Maschineller Beatmung für eine übermäßige Erhöhung der Periodendauer abschwächen können. Baroreflex und Respiratorische Sinusarrhythmie wurden durch periodische Sequenz aufeinander folgender Tidalvolumina im säure-induzierten ARDS-Modell beeinflusst, jedoch war die Musterperiode mit einem Rückgang des PaO2 assoziiert. Die im experimentellen Modell bestimmte Dynamik der Rekrutierung und Derekrutierung bestätigte aus der Literatur bekannte Werte, die durch die Analyse der dynamischen Computertomographie gewonnen wurden. In der numerischen Modell-Studie zeigte sich, dass die Rekrutierung während der ZVB für bestimmte Verhältnisse zwischen Rekrutierungs- und Derekrutierungsdynamik (Asymmetrie) maximiert werden. Die Dynamik der Rekrutierung war bei der ZVB im Vergleich zu herkömmlichen Rekrutierungsmanövern geringer, jedoch innerhalb des Wertebereichs der Dynamik der Rekrutierung des jeweiligen Modells. Folglich konnte durch ZVB mit einem Variationskoeffizienten von 30 % die Derekru- tierung der Lunge in einem Modell der akuten Lungenentzündung verhindert werden. Schlussfolgerung Die Asymmetrie zwischen der Dynamik der Rekrutierung und Derekrutierung der Lunge, die durch die Analyse des Zeitverlaufs der dynamischen Elastance quantifiziert werden konnte, war mit der Rekrutierung während der Zufälligen Variablen Beatmung in numerischen Simulationen assoziiert. Die Periodisch Variable Beatmung verbesserte die arterielle Oxygenierung in einem klinisch relevanten Umfang ohne gleichzeitige Verbesserung der Lungenrekrutierung im Vergleich zur Zufälligen Variablen Beatmung in einem Doppelhit-Modell des ARDS am Schwein. Weder Kardiovaskulär-respiratorische Wechselwirkungen noch die Asymmetrien der Rekrutierungs- und Derekruitierungsdynamik standen mit dieser Verbesserung im Zusammenhang

Is mechanical power the final word on ventilator-induced lung injury?-no

Despite being a promising idea that combines several variables related to ventilator-induced lung injury (VILI), the concept of mechanical power (MP) carries a number of limitations, leaves several open questions, lacks proper modelling of positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) effects and, more importantly, does not respect the amount of lung tissue subjected to MP. First, the assessment of MP as a measure for development of VILI would have the highest relevance when volume displacement and related pressure changes are measured directly within the lung. Thus, ideally the relationship between MP delivered to the total respiratory system, and that delivered to lung tissue is discerned. Second, MP as defined today relates to the inspiratory phase only, and it is very possible that the expiratory phase will also play a role. Third, the calculation of MP during spontaneous breathing is challenging as airway pressure, flow and esophageal pressure are affected counter-directionally and simultaneously overlapping by the action of the ventilator and the respiratory muscles. Fourth, in its current form, MP is modelled with a positive linear relationship with PEEP, which is based on incorrect mathematical modelling to integrate the role of PEEP into MP. Fifth, the present equation used to calculate MP is qualitatively in disagreement with clinical data on VILI. The reduction of MP to its elastic part, might not only result in a higher association with VILI, but also amplifies an indirect U-shaped relationship with PEEP

Static Stretch Increases the Pro-Inflammatory Response of Rat Type 2 Alveolar Epithelial Cells to Dynamic Stretch

Background: Mechanical ventilation (MV) inflicts stress on the lungs, initiating or increasing lung inflammation, so-called ventilator-induced lung injury (VILI). Besides overdistention, cyclic opening-and-closing of alveoli (atelectrauma) is recognized as a potential mechanism of VILI. The dynamic stretch may be reduced by positive endexpiratory pressure (PEEP), which in turn increases the static stretch. We investigated whether static stretch modulates the inflammatory response of rat type 2 alveolar epithelial cells (AECs) at different levels of dynamic stretch and hypothesized that static stretch increases pro-inflammatory response of AECs at given dynamic stretch. - Methods: AECs, stimulated and not stimulated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS), were subjected to combinations of static (10, 20, and 30%) and dynamic stretch (15, 20, and 30%), for 1 and 4 h. Non-stretched AECs served as control. The gene expression and secreted protein levels of interleukin-6 (IL-6), monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1), and macrophage inflammatory protein 2 (MIP-2) were studied by real-time polymerase chain reaction (RTqPCR) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), respectively. The effects of static and dynamic stretch were assessed by two-factorial ANOVA with planned effects post-hoc comparison according to Šidák. Statistical significance was considered for p < 0.05. - Results: In LPS-stimulated, but not in non-stimulated rat type 2 AECs, compared to nonstretched cells: 1) dynamic stretch increased the expression of amphiregulin (AREG) (p < 0.05), MCP-1 (p < 0.001), and MIP-2 (<0.05), respectively, as well as the protein secretion of IL-6 (p < 0.001) and MCP-1 (p < 0.05); 2) static stretch increased the gene expression of MCP-1 (p < 0.001) and MIP-2, but not AREG, and resulted in higher secretion of IL-6 (p < 0.001), but not MCP-1, while MIP-2 was not detectable in the medium. - Conclusion: In rat type 2 AECs stimulated with LPS, static stretch increased the proinflammatory response to dynamic stretch, suggesting a potential pro-inflammatory effect of PEEP during mechanical ventilation at the cellular level