Young Adults in Urban Pakistan; Barriers and Challenges for Improving Health Behaviors in the wake of the HIV/AIDS Epidemic

Background: HIV/AIDS is spreading globally more specifically among the younger generation. The impact of HIV/AIDS on the youth cannot be underestimated. According to the UNAIDS report 2008; an estimated number of 33 million people around the globe were living with HIV in 2007, and overall, 2.0 million people died due to AIDS, compared with an estimated 1.7 million in 2001. The HIV/AIDS epidemic is most likely to affect health status, economic conditions and family situations. Unprotected sex with an infected partner, contact with infected blood, sharing of drug needles or syringes and mother to child transmission are the modes which cause HIV infection. Surveillance data of Sindh AIDS Control Program, Pakistan suggest that HIV infection is rapidly increasing among injecting drug users (IDUs) and had reached 9% in 2004-5 indicating that Pakistan has entered the concentrated epidemic stage for HIV/AIDS i.e. the HIV prevalence in high-risk subpopulations is 5% or higher. This poses a serious threat of a generalized epidemic especially among the younger population of Pakistan. The prevalence of HIV infection among female sex workers was minimal. Cultural and religious constraints in discussing reproductive health issues and lack of youth clinics further makes the younger generation more vulnerable to HIV/AIDS. Aim: The overall aim of this thesis is to explore and describe young adults knowledge and perceptions on sexual and reproductive health with special reference to HIV/AIDS, future gender roles and implications for health behaviors and prevention in Karachi, Pakistan. Methods: The studies were conducted in the city of Karachi, Pakistan, which is the largest city and the economic and commercial hub of Pakistan and comprises of people from all ethnic backgrounds. Karachi is divided into 18 towns based on administrative units. This project has used both quantitative (study I and II) and qualitative methods (study III and IV). A population-based, cross-sectional study of 1,650 young adults (male n=826) and (female, n=824) aged 17-21 years living in Karachi was conducted using a structured questionnaire (study I and II). A multi-stage cluster sampling design was used to collect data representative of the general population in an urban area in all 18 towns of Karachi. School/college dropouts and preliminary knowledge about STDs were assessed (Study I), further knowledge about HIV/AIDS was assessed (study II). Bivariate and multivariate analyses were performed separately for males and females. A qualitative exploratory study was carried out (study III and IV). Focus group discussions were used for data collection. Participants, both males and females aged 17-21 years were purposively chosen from three different social strata. Altogether, six FGDs (6-8 participants in each FGD) were conducted in the local language Urdu, two from each social stratum. Knowledge and perceptions of HIV/AIDS and family planning were explored (study III), the perception of future life prospects and gender roles were also discussed (study IV). Qualitative content analysis was applied to identify manifest and latent content. Results/findings: Study I revealed that females were twice as likely to dropout of school/college as males. The risk factors for school/college dropout for both males and females were migrant residential status, living in an extended family and low socio-economic status. Furthermore, females exhibited a higher level of awareness about STDs and HIV/AIDS than the males, irrespective of whether they had dropped out of school or not. While the males who dropped out were considerably less aware than those who remained at school, there was no such difference among females. Knowledge of HIV/AIDS was assessed in detail (study II), and it was found that out of 1,650 subjects, 24 per cent (n=390) reported that they had not heard of HIV/AIDS. Among the males, those with a poor HIV knowledge were younger (AOR=2.20; 95 per cent CI, 1.38, 3.49) and had less than six years of schooling (AOR=2.46; 1.29 4.68) with no access to computer at home (AOR=1.88; 1.06 3.34). Among the females, the risk factors for poor knowledge were young age (AOR=1.74; 1.22, 2.50), low socio-economic status (AOR=1.54; 1.06, 2.22), lack of enrolment at school/college (AOR= 1.61; 1.09, 2.39) and being unmarried (AOR=1.85; 1.05, 3.26). Knowledge and perceptions of HIV/AIDS and family planning was further explored (study III). The main theme that emerged from the focus group discussions was Need for multilevel strategies to combat the spread of HIV/AIDS and enhanced acceptance of family planning . A knowledge gap was revealed concerning HIV/AIDS and family planning among young males and females, who had to rely on media and peers for seeking information. Participants perceived that HIV/AIDS is incurable and carries a social stigma. Female participants pointed at the existence of societal discrimination against women with HIV/AIDS. The opposition of family planning from religious leaders was revealed. Exploring the perceptions of future life prospects and gender roles (study IV), the main theme that emerged from the focus group discussions was Expectations of young adults in a changing society is hampered by psychosocial and gender equality constraints . Not only did young males but young females too perceive that good education and a respectable job are obligatory for better life prospects. The major obstacles in this regard were lack of merit system and scarceness of jobs. The younger generation believes that both men and women should share household tasks. Gender inequality and the lower status of women in society were considered obstacles to development. Conclusion: Pakistani young adults having inadequate knowledge and awareness are vulnerable to the global HIV/AIDS epidemic. Both young men and women are well motivated to acquire good education and employment; and seem to belief in gender equality. Transition to better education and gender equality will result in new health related challenges, which emphasize that these young people should be equipped with proper knowledge about STDs and health related behaviors. Religious and cultural barriers to discuss reproductive health issues further deteriorate the situation. Nevertheless, as the prevalence of HIV/AIDS is still comparatively low, the epidemic has not yet enforced a general discussion on the importance of a well-informed younger generation

What do young adults know about the HIV/AIDS epidemic? Findings from a population based study in Karachi, Pakistan.

Background: HIVAIDS is spreading globally, hitting the younger generations. In Pakistan, the prevalence of HIV in high-risk subpopulations is five per cent or higher. This poses a serious threat of a generalised epidemic especially among the younger population. In the wake of HIVAIDS epidemic this is worrying as a well informed younger generation is crucial in restricting the spread of this epidemic. This study investigated Pakistani young adults\u27 (male and female) knowledge and awareness of the HIV/AIDS disease. Methods: A population-based, cross-sectional study of 1,650 male and female adults aged 17-21 years living in Karachi was conducted using a structured questionnaire. A multi-stage cluster sampling design was used to collect data representative of the general population in an urban area. Bivariate and multivariate analyses were performed separately for males and females. Results: Of 1,650 subjects, 24 per cent (n = 390) reported that they had not heard of HIV/AIDS. Among the males, those with a poor knowledge were younger (AOR = 2.20, 95 per cent CI, 1.38, 3.49), with less than six years of schooling (AOR = 2.46, 1.29 4.68) and no computer at home (AOR = 1.88, 1.06 3.34). Among the females, the risk factors for poor knowledge were young age (AOR = 1.74, 1.22, 2.50), low socio-economic status (AOR = 1.54, 1.06, 2.22), lack of enrolment at school/college (AOR = 1.61, 1.09, 2.39) and being unmarried (AOR = 1.85, 1.05, 3.26). Conclusion: Alarming gaps in knowledge relating to HIV/AIDS were detected. The study emphasises the need to educate young adults and equip them with the appropriate information and skills to enable them to protect themselves from HIV/AIDS. However, taboos surrounding public discussions of sexuality remain a key constraint to preventive activities

Assessing the effects of training on knowledge and skills of health personnel: a case study from the family health project in Sindh, Pakistan

Background: The Family Health Project (FHP) was implemented in the province of Sindh during 1992-99 with the assistance of the World Bank. The project was designed to bring substantial changes in health care system for achieving improvement in the health status by strengthening the quality and integration of primary health care services. One of the major components of the project was to develop the institutional capacity of Ministry of Health in Sindh. This is a comparative analysis to assess the knowledge and skills of health care providers in Area Focus Approach (AFA) health facilities with the ones in non-AFA health care facilities.Methods: In order to obtain a representative sample, 8 districts were selected which included, Larkana, Khairpur, Nawabshah, Dadu, Tharparkar, Thatta, Karachi South, and Karachi West. A structured questionnaire was designed with various sections to assess the knowledge and skills of various cadres of health facility staff.Results: This comparative assessment has come up with some interesting results; there is a difference between the scores of knowledge and skills between AFA and non-AFA health care providers. This assessment identified some important methodological issues such as the use of base-line information for comparing the results and the selection of a comparable study population for controlling the confounding factors.CONCLUSIONS: These findings can be used as important lessons learned for producing better results of any post training assessment intervention

Young adults\u27 perceptions on life prospects and gender roles as important factors to influence health behaviour: a qualitative study from Karachi, Pakistan

The purpose of this qualitative study was to explore perceptions and expectations of young males and females, in Karachi, Pakistan, regarding their life prospects and gender roles, with resulting implications for health behaviour. The main theme emerging was Young adults\u27 prospects in life are hampered by psychosocial and gender equality constraints . Gender inequality and the low status of women in society were described as major obstacles to the overall development. Persistent withholding of information to the younger generation on sexual and reproductive health issues was perceived to increase exposure to health risks, particularly sexually transmitted infections (STIs). The present study reveals new discourses on equality among young adults, pointing towards an increasing, sound interaction between the sexes and aspirations for more gender equal relationships. Such views and awareness among the younger generation constitutes a strong force towards change of traditional norms, including reproductive health behaviour, and calls for policy change

Need for multilevel strategies and enhanced acceptance of contraceptive use in order to combat the spread of HIV/AIDS in a Muslim society: a qualitative study of young adults in urban Karachi, Pakistan.

This qualitative study explored knowledge, attitudes, beliefs and perceptions of sexual and reproductive health, focusing specifically on contraceptive use and HIV prevention among young unmarried men and women, 17-21 years, in urban Karachi, Pakistan. The main theme, identified as underlying meaning in the focus group discussions was Societal norms and perceptions create barriers to knowledge and awareness about sexual and reproductive health matters among young adults . A knowledge gap was revealed concerning HIV/AIDS and contraceptive use among young males and females, who have to rely on media and peers for information seeking. Study participants perceived that HIV/AIDS is incurable and carries a social stigma. It was further revealed, that there is an opposition towards contraceptive use from religious leaders. Young adults in Pakistan are in need of improved knowledge about HIV/AIDS and contraceptive use. Youth clinics and schools/colleges may play a significant role in this regard. The religious leaders need to be informed about the beneficial effects of contraceptives and they should be part of any family planning/contraceptive use program to ensure better community acceptance. At the structural level there is an urgent need for policies targeting the issue of sexual and reproductive health, particularly HIV/AIDS information and contraceptive use to target the young population. The health care services should be able to respond by offering relevant services

Determinants of contraceptives use amongst youth: an exploratory study with family planning service providers in Karachi Pakistan

Introduction: In Pakistan, Contraceptive Prevalence Rate (CPR) among married female youth is 17.4% and even lower in rural and slum areas leading to rapid population growth on one hand and poor health consequences on the other. The study was conducted to explore family planning service providers\u27 perceptions regarding use of different contraceptive methods and to identify factors that are influencing their use amongst currently married youth aged 18-24 years in slum areas of Karachi.METHOD: Qualitative exploratory study design was adopted and a total of ten in-depth interviews were conducted with family planning service providers of the area. For content analysis coding of transcribed interviews was done and then categories were made and furthermore themes were derived.Results: Our findings revealed that family planning service providers perceived that there is low use of contraceptive methods amongst youth of study area and low usage could be due to side effects; myths and misconceptions; lack of proper knowledge about different contraceptives; unmet needs of contraceptives; socio-cultural and religious factors about different contraceptive methods and family planning service providers own biases against or for use of contraceptive methods amongst youth in the study area. However better education of youth and family planning service providers\u27 improved knowledge about counseling and use of contraceptive methods was perceived to be associated with improved use of family planning methods amongst youth of the study area.CONCLUSION: Exaggerated side effects and socio-cultural factors could be important influences leading to low use of family planning methods amongst youth of Karachi. Some policy initiatives are the training of lady health Workers, lady health visitors, physicians and staff of the pharmacies for counseling youth in the correct use of family planning methods

Myths and fallacies about male contraceptive methods: a qualitative study amongst married youth in slums of Karachi, Pakistan

Pakistan presently has one of the largest cohorts of young people in its history, with around 36 million people between the ages of 15 and 24 years. One of the main reasons for high population growth in Pakistan is almost stagnant contraceptive prevalence rate of 30% nationallyand 17.4% amongst youth. The study was conducted to explore the perceptions regarding myths and fallacies related to male contraceptive methods among married youth aged 18-24 year in Karachi, Pakistan. Qualitative exploratory study design was adopted and a total of eight Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) were conducted. Study was conducted in two Union Councils of Korangi Town in the squatter settlement of Karachi, Pakistan from July to September 2010. Thematic analysis was done manually. General, physical, sexual, psychological, socio-cultural and religious were the common categories which lead to myths and fallacies related to condoms use and vasectomy among the married youth. The foremost myth amongst male and female youth was that use of both condoms and vasectomy cause impotence in males. Additionally, condoms were thought to cause infections, backache and headache in males. Some youth of the area think that vasectomy is meant for prisoners only. In conclusion our findings suggest that the potential reasons behind low use of male contraceptive methods among youth of squatter settlement of Karachi were myths and fallacies about male contraceptive methods. There are some important policy implications like counseling of the couple through peers and well trained family planning service providers to address these myths and misconceptions from the minds of youth

The constant threat of terrorism: stress levels and coping strategies amongst university students of Karachi

OBJECTIVES: To assess the levels of stress in the face of terrorism and the adopted coping strategies, amongst the student population of universities in Karachi . METHODS: A descriptive, cross sectional study was conducted on undergraduate students from four universities of Karachi. Self-administered questionnaires were filled out by 291 students. Pearson Chi-Square test was used to assess associations between stress levels and different variables at a level of significance of 0.05% . RESULTS: A total of 65.8% of the students had mild stress levels, 91.5% of university students were exposed to terrorism through television, while only 26.5% students reported personal exposure to terrorism. 67.4% students were forbidden by their parents to go out (p = 0.002). Most of those who had self exposure to an attack were the ones whose parents forbade them from going out (p = 0.00). Most commonly used coping strategy was increased faith in religion. Irritability was the most common stress symptom . CONCLUSION: A majority of students studying in universities of Karachi had mild stress levels due to the constant threat of terrorism whereas a minority had severe stress levels. Possible reasons for resilience and only mild stress levels could be the history of Karachi\u27s internal conflicts and its prolonged duration of being exposed to terrorism. These students who are positive for stress need to be targeted for counseling either through the media or through their universities. More extensive research is needed in this area

Performance characterization of a PCM storage tank

This paper presents the experimental results of a versatile latent heat storage tank capable of working with organic phase-change materials within a temperature range from -10 °C to 100 °C. The tank contains a paraffin with a phase-change temperature between 3 °C and 8 °C. Firstly, this study focuses on explaining the design criteria which were followed to build the tank. Secondly, a full experimental characterization of the performance has been carried out. The enthalpy temperature curve, the specific heat and density have been measured for the tested paraffin. The performance of the tank has been analyzed in terms of the vertical stratification within the PCM, the effectiveness, the reacted fraction and the total heat transfer of the tank. The results indicate that up to 78% of the maximum capacity is reached within 4 h. The performance is mainly controlled by the supply temperature and the effect of the mass flow rate is almost negligible given that all the tests are in laminar flow.The authors from the Polytechnic University of Valencia gratefully acknowledge ACCIONA Infraestructuras for the funding of the LHTS installation. The authors from University of Zaragoza would like to thank the Spanish Government for the partial funding of this work within the framework of research projects ENE2008-06687-C02-02 and ENE2011-28269-C03-01.López Navarro, A.; Biosca Taronger, J.; Corberán Salvador, JM.; Peñalosa, C.; Lázaro, A.; Dolado, P.; Payá Herrero, J. (2014). Performance characterization of a PCM storage tank. Applied Energy. 119:151-162. doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2013.12.041S15116211