Is It Rational to Assume that Infants Imitate Rationally? A Theoretical Analysis and Critique

It has been suggested that preverbal infants evaluate the efficiency of others' actions (by applying a principle of rational action) and that they imitate others' actions rationally. The present contribution presents a conceptual analysis of the claim that preverbal infants imitate rationally. It shows that this ability rests on at least three assumptions: that infants are able to perceive others' action capabilities, that infants reason about and conceptually represent their own bodies, and that infants are able to think counterfactually. It is argued that none of these three abilities is in place during infancy. Furthermore, it is shown that the idea of a principle of rational action suffers from two fallacies. As a consequence, is it suggested that it is not rational to assume that infants imitate rationally. Copyright (C) 2012 S. Karger AG, Base

Alteração do índice biespectral antes e após estimulação elétrica ou mecânica em cães anestesiados pelo isofluorano

One of the current methods to assess hypnosis and central depression during anesthesia is the bispectral index (BIS), which generates a number from 0 to 100. The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the changes in BIS during electrical or mechanical supra-maximal stimulation in order to investigate whether there is a relation between this index and motor response to nociception. Seven beagle dogs were included, two males and five females, which were anesthetized with isoflurane at 2.0, 1.8, 1.6, 1.4 and 1.2%. Different types of stimuli were employed at different procedures in the same animals with at least 15 days of interval. The BIS values were recorded during 60 seconds each time and mean values were obtained before (AE) and after (DE) the stimulus. Results were compared through paired t test or Wilcoxon's paired test (P<0.05). Significant differences were found between AE and DE values in almost every isoflurane concentration, as well as between the subtraction of these values, when compared between types of stimuli at 1.8 and 2.0%. In conclusion, the response to supra-maximal stimulation does change BIS values in dogs by decreasing the depth of anesthesia. The use of mechanical stimulation is suggested in order to avoid possible interferences of the electrical current and loss of data reliability.Uma das formas atuais para se avaliar o grau de hipnose e depressão do sistema nervoso central durante a anestesia é o índice biespectral (BIS), que fornece um valor de 0 a 100. Objetivou-se avaliar as alterações do BIS de cães durante a estimulação elétrica e mecânica supra-máxima e sob diferentes concentrações de isofluorano, a fim de verificar se existe uma relação entre este índice e a resposta motora frente à nocicepção. Utilizaram-se sete cães da raça Beagle, dois machos e cinco fêmeas, anestesiados com isofluorano nas concentrações de 2,0; 1,8; 1,6; 1,4 e 1,2%. Os diferentes tipos de estímulo foram utilizados em procedimentos anestésicos diferentes nos mesmos animais, com intervalo mínimo de 15 dias. Os valores de BIS foram anotados por 60 segundos em cada avaliação, derivando médias antes (AE) e depois (DE) de cada estímulo. Os resultados foram analisados por meio de teste t pareado ou Wilcoxon pareado (P<0,05). Houve diferença significativa entre os valores AE e DE em todas as concentrações de isofluorano, exceto 2,0% no estímulo mecânico. Também foi significativa entre a subtração desses valores, quando comparados entre estímulos, em 1,8 e 2,0%. Conclui-se que a resposta frente a estímulos supra-máximos modifica os valores de BIS em cães por meio da superficialização do plano anestésico. Sugere-se o emprego do modelo mecânico para evitar possíveis interferências de corrente elétrica e perda da confiabilidade dos dados.Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)Programa Institucional de Bolsas de Iniciação Científica (PIBIC)Universidade Estadual Paulista Júlio de Mesquita Filho Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária de Araçatuba Departamento de Clínica, Cirurgia e Reprodução AnimalUniversidade Estadual Paulista Júlio de Mesquita Filho Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária de Araçatuba Departamento de Clínica, Cirurgia e Reprodução AnimalFAPESP: 2011/05902-7PIBIC: 158179/2013-

ASSOCIATIONS AMONG HEMORHEOLOGICAL FACTORS AND MAXIMAL OXYGEN CONSUMPTION IN AEROBIC AND RESISTANCE ATHLETES

M. M. Smith1, A. R. Lucas2, R. L. Hamlin2, & S. T. Devor2 1Gonzaga University, Spokane, WA and 2The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH Currently, it is not known how hemorheological variables measured in aerobic and resistance athletes compare at rest or following maximal exercise or what influence they may have in determining VO2max. PURPOSE: This study examined the relationship between hematocrit, blood viscosity, plasma viscosity, erythrocyte deformability, and fibrinogen concentration during maximal oxygen uptake in aerobically trained (AT) and resistance trained (RT) athletes. METHODS: Maximal oxygen uptake was assessed using a Bruce graded exercise treadmill test to exhaustion, and blood samples were collected at rest and immediately following exercise using a venous catheter. Viscometric analyses were performed using a cone and plate viscometer at varying shear rates. Hematocrit was measured as the fraction of erythrocytes suspended in plasma following centrifugation. Erythrocyte rigidity was estimated using the Dintenfass index of red blood cell rigidity. RESULTS: Following maximal treadmill exercise, an increase of blood viscosity at varying shear rates (22.50, 45.00, 90.00, and 225.00 s-1; P \u3c 0.05) was observed in RT athletes only. , Plasma viscosity 225.00 s-1 (1.88±0.09 vs. 1.78±0.02 mPa.s; P \u3c 0.05), erythrocyte rigidity (0.52±0.08 vs. 0.40±0.09; P \u3c 0.05), and plasma fibrinogen (295±25 vs. 434±7 mg/dL; P \u3c 0.01) were all significantly greater in RT than AT athletes following maximal exercise. CONCLUSION: In summary, AT, but not RT, is associated with a hemorheological profile that promotes both oxygen transport and delivery. The results bring into question whether hematocrit alone should be the focus of training and ergogenic supplementation to increase aerobic performance