The use of table and cooking salt in a sample of Australian adults

Dietary sodium, the major source being salt, is associated with hypertension. Australian adults consume more than the recommended amount of salt and approximately 15% of dietary sodium comes from salt added at the table and during cooking. Objective: To determine the frequency of and the demographic characteristics associated with discretionary salt use. Design: A cross sectional survey conducted in shopping centres within Metropolitan Melbourne. Participants completed a questionnaire assessing discretionary salt use and attitudes to salt intake. Outcomes: Four hundred and seventy four surveys were collected (65% female, 77% Caucasian, 64% holding a university qualification). Eighty nine percent of respondents were classified as salt users and 11% as non-salt users. Of the salt users 52% reported that they always or sometimes add salt during cooking and at the table. Those of Asian descent and younger respondents aged 18-24 years were more likely to be salt users (chi2=12.3, df=2, p&lt;0.001; chi2=19.2, df=5, p&lt;0.01). Conclusion: Discretionary salt use remains high. To successfully reduce population dietary salt intake public health campaigns are urgently required and need to include consumer advice to reduce discretionary salt use, whilst reducing the salt added to processed foods. Such campaigns should include younger age groups and should be appropriate for all ethnic backgrounds to raise the awareness of the risks of a high salt diet on health.<br /

Australian children\u27s consumption of caffeinated, formulated beverages: a cross-sectional analysis

BACKGROUND: Caffeine is a common additive in formulated beverages, including sugar-sweetened beverages. Currently there are no data on the consumption of caffeinated formulated beverages in Australian children and adolescents. This study aimed to determine total intake and consumption patterns of CFBs in a nationally representative sample of Australian children aged 2-16 years and to determine contribution of CFBs to total caffeine intake. Consumption by day type, mealtime and location was also examined. METHODS: Dietary data from one 24-hour recall collected in the 2007 Australian National Children\u27s Nutrition and Physical Activity Survey were analysed. CFBs were defined as beverages to which caffeine has been added as an additive, including cola-type beverages and energy drinks. Socioeconomic status was based on the highest level of education attained by the participant\u27s primary caregiver. Time of day of consumption was classified based on traditional mealtimes and type of day of consumption as either a school or non-school day. Location of consumption was defined by the participant during the survey. RESULTS: On the day of the survey 15% (n = 642) of participants consumed CFBs. Older children and those of low socioeconomic background were more likely to consume CFBs (both P &lt; 0.001). Amongst the 642 consumers mean (95% CI) intakes were 151 (115-187)g/day, 287 (252-321)g/day, 442 (400-484)g/day, and 555 (507-602)g/day for 2-3, 4-8, 9-13 and 14-16 year olds respectively. Consumers of CFBs had higher intakes of caffeine (mean (95% CI) 61 (55-67)mg vs. 11 (10-12)mg) and energy (mean (95% CI) 9,612 (9,247-9978)kJ vs. 8,186 (8,040-8,335)kJ) than non-consumers (both P &lt; 0.001). CFBs contributed 69% of total daily caffeine intake. CFB intake was higher on non-school days compared with school days (P &lt; 0.005) and consumption occurred predominantly at the place of residence (56%), within the &quot;dinner&quot; time bracket (17:00-20:30, 44%). CONCLUSIONS: The consumption of CFBs by all age groups within Australian children is of concern. Modifications to the permissibility of caffeine as a food additive may be an appropriate strategy to reduce the intake of caffeine in this age group. Additional areas for intervention include targeting parental influences over mealtime beverage choices

Sources of Sodium in Australian children\u27s diets and the effect of the application of sodium targets to food products to reduce sodium intake

The average reported dietary Na intake of children in Australia is high: 2694 mg/d (9&ndash;13 years). No data exist describing food sources of Na in Australian children\u27s diets and potential impact of Na reduction targets for processed foods. The aim of the present study was to determine sources of dietary Na in a nationally representative sample of Australian children aged 2&ndash;16 years and to assess the impact of application of the UK Food Standards Agency (FSA) Na reduction targets on Na intake. Na intake and use of discretionary salt (note: conversion of salt to Na, 1 g of NaCl (salt) = 390 mg Na) were assessed from 24-h dietary recall in 4487 children participating in the Australian 2007 Children\u27s Nutrition and Physical Activity Survey. Greatest contributors to Na intake across all ages were cereals and cereal-based products/dishes (43 %), including bread (13 %) and breakfast cereals (4 %). Other moderate sources were meat, poultry products (16 %), including processed meats (8 %) and sausages (3 %); milk products/dishes (11 %) and savoury sauces and condiments (7 %). Between 37 and 42 % reported that the person who prepares their meal adds salt when cooking and between 11 and 39 % added salt at the table. Those over the age of 9 years were more likely to report adding salt at the table (&chi;2 199&middot;5, df 6, P &lt; 0&middot;001). Attainment of the UK FSA Na reduction targets, within the present food supply, would result in a 20 % reduction in daily Na intake in children aged 2&ndash;16 years. Incremental reductions of this magnitude over a period of years could significantly reduce the Na intake of this group and further reductions could be achieved by reducing discretionary salt use.<br /

Dietary salt intake assessed by 24 h urinary sodium excretion in Australian schoolchildren aged 5–13 years

Objective To measure total daily salt intake using 24 h urinary Na excretion within a sample of Victorian schoolchildren aged 5&ndash;13 years and to assess discretionary salt use habits of children and parents.Design Cross-sectional study.Setting Completed within a convenience sample of independent primary schools (n 9) located in Victoria, Australia.Subjects Two hundred and sixty children completed a 24 h urine collection over a school (34 %) or non-school day (66 %). Samples deemed incomplete (n 18), an over-collection (n 1) or that were incorrectly processed at the laboratory (n 3) were excluded.Results The sample comprised 120 boys and 118 girls with a mean age of 9&middot;8 (sd 1&middot;7) years. The average 24 h urinary Na excretion (n 238) was 103 (sd 43) mmol/24 h (salt equivalent 6&middot;0 (sd 2&middot;5) g/d). Daily Na excretion did not differ by sex; boys 105 (sd 46) mmol/24 h (salt equivalent 6&middot;1 (sd 2&middot;7) g/d) and girls 100 (sd 41) mmol/24 h (salt equivalent 5&middot;9 (sd 2&middot;4) g/d; P = 0&middot;38). Sixty-nine per cent of children (n 164) exceeded the recommended daily Upper Limit for Na. Reported discretionary salt use was common: two-thirds of parents reported adding salt during cooking and almost half of children reported adding salt at the table.Conclusions The majority of children had salt intakes exceeding the recommended daily Upper Limit. Strategies to lower salt intake in children are urgently required, and should include product reformulation of lower-sodium food products combined with interventions targeting discretionary salt use within the home

Is socioeconomic status associated with dietary sodium intake in Australian children? A cross-sectional study

Objective To assess the association between socioeconomic status (SES) and dietary sodium intake, and to identify if the major dietary sources of sodium differ by socioeconomic group in a nationally representative sample of Australian children.Design Cross-sectional survey.Setting 2007 Australian National Children\u27s Nutrition and Physical Activity Survey.Participants A total of 4487 children aged 2&ndash;16 years completed all components of the survey.Primary and secondary outcome measures Sodium intake was determined via one 24 h dietary recall. The population proportion formula was used to identify the major sources of dietary salt. SES was defined by the level of education attained by the primary carer. In addition, parental income was used as a secondary indicator of SES.Results Dietary sodium intake of children of low SES background was 2576 (SEM 42) mg/day (salt equivalent 6.6 (0.1) g/day), which was greater than that of children of high SES background 2370 (35) mg/day (salt 6.1 (0.1) g/day; p&lt;0.001). After adjustment for age, gender, energy intake and body mass index, low SES children consumed 195 mg/day (salt 0.5 g/day) more sodium than high SES children (p&lt;0.001). Low SES children had a greater intake of sodium from processed meat, gravies/sauces, pastries, breakfast cereals, potatoes and potato snacks (all p&lt;0.05).Conclusions Australian children from a low SES background have on average a 9% greater intake of sodium from food sources compared with those from a high SES background. Understanding the socioeconomic patterning of salt intake during childhood should be considered in interventions to reduce cardiovascular disease.<br /

Cross-sectional study of 24-hour urinary electrolyte excretion and associated health outcomes in a convenience sample of Australian primary schoolchildren: the salt and other nutrients in children (SONIC) study protocol

BACKGROUND: Dietary sodium and potassium are involved in the pathogenesis of cardiovascular disease. Data exploring the cardiovascular outcomes associated with these electrolytes within Australian children is sparse. Furthermore, an objective measure of sodium and potassium intake within this group is lacking. OBJECTIVE: The primary aim of the Salt and Other Nutrient Intakes in Children (&quot;SONIC&quot;) study was to measure sodium and potassium intakes in a sample of primary schoolchildren located in Victoria, Australia, using 24-hour urine collections. Secondary aims were to identify the dietary sources of sodium and potassium, examine the association between these electrolytes and cardiovascular risk factors, and assess children\u27s taste preferences and saltiness perception of manufactured foods. METHODS: A cross-sectional study was conducted in a convenience sample of schoolchildren attending primary schools in Victoria, Australia. Participants completed one 24-hour urine collection, which was analyzed for sodium, potassium, and creatinine. Completeness of collections was assessed using collection time, total volume, and urinary creatinine. One 24-hour dietary recall was completed to assess dietary intake. Other data collected included blood pressure, body weight, height, waist and hip circumference. Children were also presented with high and low sodium variants of food products and asked to discriminate salt level and choose their preferred variant. Parents provided demographic information and information on use of discretionary salt. Descriptive statistics will be used to describe sodium and potassium intakes. Linear and logistic regression models with clustered robust standard errors will be used to assess the association between electrolyte intake and health outcomes (blood pressure and body mass index/BMI z-score and waist circumference) and to assess differences in taste preference and discrimination between high and low sodium foods, and correlations between preference, sodium intake, and covariates. RESULTS: A total of 780 children across 43 schools participated. The results from this study are expected at the end of 2015. CONCLUSIONS: This study will provide the first objective measure of sodium and potassium intake in Australian schoolchildren and improve our understanding of the relationship of these electrolytes to cardiovascular risk factors. Furthermore, this study will provide insight into child taste preferences and explore related factors. Given the cardiovascular implications of consuming too much sodium and too little potassium, monitoring of these nutrients during childhood is an important public health initiative

Knowledge, attitudes and behaviours related to dietary salt among adults in the state of Victoria, Australia 2015

BackgroundInformation on consumer&rsquo;s knowledge, attitudes and behaviours (KABs) related to salt can be used to inform awareness and education campaigns and serve as a baseline measure to monitor changes in KABs over time. The aim of this study was to determine KABs related to salt intake among Victorian adults.MethodsCross-sectional survey conducted in Victorian adults aged 18&ndash;65 years. Participants were recruited from shopping centres located in Melbourne and Geelong and via online methods (Facebook and Consumer Research Panel) to complete an online survey assessing KABs related to dietary salt. Descriptive statistics (mean (SD) or n (%)) were used to report survey findings.ResultsA total of 2398 participants provided a valid survey (mean age 43 years (SD 13), 57% female). The majority (80%) were born in Australia and 63% were the main household grocery shopper. The majority (89%) were aware of the health risks associated with a high salt intake. Eighty three percent believed that Australians eat too much salt. Three quarters (75%) correctly identified salt from processed foods as being the main source of salt in the diet. Less than a third (29%) of participants believed their own individual salt intake exceeded dietary recommendations and only 28% could correctly identify the maximum recommended daily intake for salt. Just under half (46%) of participants were concerned about the amount of salt in food. Almost two thirds (61%) of participants believed that there should be laws which limit the amount of salt added to manufactured foods and 58% agreed that it was difficult to find lower salt options when eating out.ConclusionsThe findings of this study serve as a baseline assessment of KABs related to salt intake in Victorian adults and can be used to assess changes in salt related KABs over time. Public concern about salt is low as many people remain unaware of their own salt intake. An increased awareness of the excessive amount of salt consumed and increased availability of lower salt foods are likely to reduce population salt intake.<br /

Sources and correlates of sodium consumption in the first 2 years of life

High sodium intake during infancy and early childhood can change salt preference and blood pressure trajectories across life, representing a modifiable cardiovascular risk factor. Describing young children\u27s sodium intake is important for informing effective targets for sodium reduction

24-h urinary sodium excretion is associated with obesity in a cross-sectional sample of Australian schoolchildren

Emerging evidence indicates that dietary Na may be linked to obesity; however it is unclear whether this relationship is independent of energy intake (EI). The aim of this study was to assess the association between Na intake and measures of adiposity, including BMI z score, weight category and waist:height ratio (WHtR), in a sample of Australian schoolchildren. This was a cross-sectional study of schoolchildren aged 4-12 years. Na intake was assessed via one 24-h urine collection. BMI was converted to age- and sex-specific z scores, and WHtR was used to define abdominal obesity. In children aged &ge;8 years, EI was determined via one 24-h dietary recall. Of the 666 children with valid urine samples 55 % were male (average age 9&middot;3 (sd 1&middot;8) years). In adjusted models an additional 17 mmol/d of Na was associated with a 0&middot;10 higher BMI z score (95 % CI 0&middot;07, 0&middot;13), a 23 % (OR 1&middot;23; 95 % CI 1&middot;16, 1&middot;31) greater risk of being overweight/obese and a 15 % (OR 1&middot;15; 95 % CI 1&middot;09, 1&middot;23) greater risk of being centrally obese. In the subsample of 8-12-year-old children (n 458), adjustment for EI did not markedly alter the associations between Na and adiposity outcomes. Using a robust measure of daily Na intake we found a positive association between Na intake and obesity risk in Australian schoolchildren, which could not be explained by total energy consumption. To determine whether this is a causal relationship, longitudinal studies, with high-quality measures of Na and EI, are required

Marine Volcaniclastic Record of Early Arc Evolution in the Eastern Ritter Range Pendant, Central Sierra Nevada, California

Marine volcaniclastic rocks in the Sierra Nevada preserve a critical record of silicic magmatism in the early Sierra Nevada volcanic arc, and this magmatic record provides precise minimum age constraints on subduction inception and tectonic evolution of the early Mesozoic Cordilleran convergent margin at this latitude. New zircon Pb/U ages from the Ritter Range pendant and regional correlations indicate arc inception no later than mid‐Triassic time between 37 and 38°N. The regional first‐order felsic magma eruption rate as recorded by marine volcanic arc rocks was episodic, with distinct pulses of ignimbrite emplacement at ca. 221 to 216 Ma and 174 to 167 Ma. Ignimbrites range from dacite to rhyolite in bulk composition, and are petrographically similar to modern arc‐type, monotonous intermediate dacite or phenocryst‐poor, low‐silica rhyolite. Zircon trace element geochemistry indicates that Jurassic silicic melts were consistently Ti‐ and light rare earth‐enriched and U‐depleted in comparison to Triassic melts of the juvenile arc, suggesting Jurassic silicic melts were hotter, drier, and derived from distinct lithospheric sources not tapped in the juvenile stage of arc construction. Pulses of ignimbrite deposition were coeval with granodioritic to granitic components of the underlying early Mesozoic Sierra Nevada batholith, suggesting explosive silicic volcanism and batholith construction were closely coupled at one‐ to two‐million‐year time scales