Redefiniendo los incentivos a la colusión: el programa de clemencia

Los programas de clemencia se han convertido en uno de los instrumentos más efectivos en la lucha contra los cárteles. En este trabajo describimos la difusión, evolución y efectos de tales programas en las dos décadas de su aplicación alrededor del mundo. De las regularidades empíricas extraídas del análisis de todas las decisiones de clemencia adoptadas en la Unión Europea y en España, concluimos que hay margen para ampliar la difusión y aplicación del programa de clemencia en España, y que si se acierta en las reformas, será la fuente principal de detección y sanción de cárteles en la próxima década

The leniency programme: obstacles on the way to collude

There is no honour among thieves. This aphorism concisely expresses why the leniency programmes in competition policy have become one of the most effective instruments in the fight against the cartels. In this work we describe the dissemination, evolution, and effects of the aforementioned programmes in the two decades since its implementation around the world, paying special attention to what is being done at the European Union level and in Spain. The empirical regularities obtained from the descriptive analysis of leniency decisions adopted by the European Commission and by the Spanish Competition Authority provide relevant information about the effectiveness of their corresponding programmes, as well as information about the underlying reasons why companies, in this context, submit applications for sanction exemption or reductions in the penalty amount. We conclude that still there is scope to increase substantially the dissemination and implementation of the leniency programme in Spain, and if the reforms are handled correctly, the programme is set to catch up and to be the main source of detecting and sanctioning of Spanish cartels in the next decad

Perspectives and evaluation of teaching by university lecturers as a model of high quality

La universitat actual ha de qüestionar el seu objecte i sentit per adequar-se als nous reptes que la societat global li exigeix. Aquest debat afecta el què, el com i el per a què han de produir-se modificacions del que hi era una tradició, i com afecten aquests canvis als docents investigadors i alumnes, sobretot pel que fa a què han d'aprendre -sentit del coneixement-, en què i com han de modificar la seva pràctica i, consegüentment, quina formació és necessària per a adquirir o millorar les seves competències professionals i les seves qualitats personals. Les directrius emeses per l'European Association of Quality Assurance in Higher Education -ENQA- (2005) són un punt de partida, però insuficients quan en la universitat espanyola falta una carrera professional dels docents investigadors.La Universidad actual tiene que cuestionar su objeto y sentido para adecuarse a los nuevos retos que la sociedad global le exige. Este debate afecta al qué, cómo y para qué deben producirse modificaciones de lo que en ella era una tradición, y cómo afectan estos cambios a los docentes investigadores y alumnos, sobre todo en cuanto a qué deben aprender -sentido del conocimiento-, en qué y cómo han de modificar su práctica y, consecuentemente, qué formación es necesaria para adquirir o mejorar sus competencias profesionales y sus cualidades personales. Las directrices emitidas por la European Association of Quality Assurance in Higher Education -ENQA- (2005) son un punto de partida, pero insuficientes cuando en la universidad española falta una carrera profesional de los docentes investigadores.Universities today must question their objectives and ability to adapt to the new challenges of the global society. Debate centres on how and why universities must be modified, and how changes will affect researchers and students, particularly insofar as learning is concerned, in what areas and in which ways teaching practices should be modified. This leads to the question on what training is necessary to acquire or improve professional competitiveness, as well as the individual's qualities, procedures and resources. The directives issued in 2005 by the European Association of Quality Assurance in Higher Education (ENQA) are a beginning, but they are insufficient in the Spanish university system, which lacks a professional career for education researchers

Vapor-liquid interfacial properties of rigid-linear Lennard-Jones chains

We have obtained the interfacial properties of short rigid-linear chains formed from tangentially bonded Lennard-Jones monomeric units from direct simulation of the vapour-liquid interface. The full long-range tails of the potential are accounted for by means of an improved version of the inhomogeneous long-range corrections of Janecek [J. Phys. Chem. B 110, 6264–6269 (2006)] proposed recently by MacDowell and Blas [J. Chem. Phys. 131, 074705 (2009)] valid for spherical as well as for rigid and flexible molecular systems. Three different model systems comprising of 3, 4, and 5 monomers per molecule are considered. The simulations are performed in the canonical ensemble, and the vapor-liquid interfacial tension is evaluated using the test-area method. In addition to the sur- face tension, we also obtain density profiles, coexistence densities, critical temperature and density, and interfacial thickness as functions of temperature, paying particular attention to the effect of the chain length and rigidity on these properties. According to our results, the main effect of increasing the chain length (at fixed temperature) is to sharpen the vapor-liquid interface and to increase the width of the biphasic coexistence region. As a result, the interfacial thickness decreases and the sur- face tension increases as the molecular chains get longer. The surface tension has been scaled by critical properties and represented as a function of the difference between coexistence densities relative to the critical density.The authors would like to acknowledge helpful discus- sions with F. J. Martínez-Ruiz, E. de Miguel, C. Vega, and A. Galindo. This work was supported by Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación (MICINN, Spain) through Grant Nos. FIS2010- 14866 (F.J.B.), FIS2009-07923 (J.M.M. and M.M.P.) and FIS2010-22047-C05-05 (L.G.M.D.). J.M.M. also acknowledges Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación for the FPU Grant with reference AP2007-02172. Further financial support from Proyecto de Excelencia from Junta de Andalucía (Grant No. P07-FQM02884), Consellería de Educacion e Ordenacion Universitaria (Xunta de Galicia), Comunidad Autónoma de Madrid (Grant No. MODELICO-P2009/EPS-1691), and Universidad de Huelva are also acknowledged

When are Cartels more likely to be formed or broken? The role of business cycles

The literature presents mixed contributions about the economic conditions under which cartels form and collapse, and about how stable they are across firm-specific and industry-wide business cycles. The relationship between cartel life cycles and business cycles has not been sufficiently analyzed to date. In this paper, we study in depth whether collusion is pro-cyclical or counter-cyclical. We analyze the relationship between cartel startups/breakups and economic cycles using a dataset of sanctioned cartels by the European Commission that were active between 1997 and 2012, after the leniency program had already been introduced. We also double check whether this relationship has changed with respect to the pre-leniency period from 1991 to 1996. Our results show that cartels are more likely to be formed in upturns, but that cartels tend to breakup also in booms. Upturns in economic cycles appear to cause cartel turnovers: existing cartels die while new ones are set up. Collusion appears to be pro-cyclical with respect to cartel creation, while it seems to be counter-cyclical with regard to cartel demise

Cartel destabilization effect of leniency programs

This paper investigates the theoretically and empirically unsettled question of the effect of the leniency programs on cartel duration, cartel fines and the length of the investigation. The fact that leniency programs were implemented in two different jurisdictions (EU and Spain) at different moments of time, and the exogeneity of the date of introduction, allow us to identify and quantify the effect of the programs on the outcomes using difference-in-difference program evaluation techniques. We empirically show that leniency programs destabilize existing cartels in the short run as expected from theory and previous empirical papers, and then dissuade the creation of new cartels in the long run. Deterrence effects dominate empirically in the long run, although theoretically they might not dominate, and previous empirical findings were inconclusive. Fines per firm increase substantially after the introduction of the leniency policy, despite whistleblowing firms are partially or totally exempted from fines. The duration of the investigation increases with the introduction of the leniency programs. Leniency programs have sharp and clear short-run cartel destabilization and long-run cartel dissuasion effects

Managers' expectations, business cycles and cartels' life cycle

The literature presents mixed findings regarding the economic conditions under which cartels form and collapse, and regarding how stable they are across firm-specific and industry-wide business cycles. The relationship between cartel life cycles and business cycles has been insufficiently analyzed to date. In this paper, we study in depth whether collusion is pro-cyclical or counter-cyclical. We analyze the relationship between cartel start-ups/break ups and economic cycles using a dataset of sanctioned cartels by the European Commission (EC) that were active between 1997 and 2018, after the leniency program had already been introduced. We also double check whether this relationship has changed with respect to the pre-leniency period from 1991 to 1996. Our results show that cartels are more likely to be formed when the business has evolved positively in the previous months, and cartels are less likely to collapse when the business has evolved positively, and managers expect prices to decline. The EC's sanctioning activity has been an effective deterrent and has had a destabilizing effect on cartels. However we found no evidence that managers' expectations on prices affect cartel formation. All these results are an important issue for anti-cartel policy enforcement since knowing when cartels are more prone or less likely to occur would help authorities prevent their formation or their early detection

Multiciliated ependyma recovery through a sequential cell therapy in posthemorrhagic hydrocephalus.

Posthemorrhagic hydrocephalus (PHH) is a significant cause for premature children’s morbidity, mortality, and peri/postnatal neurodevelopmental impairment. PHH is mainly triggered by germinal matrix hemorrhages (GMH) and causes germinal matrix and ependyma disfunction. Ependyma constitutes a relevant tissue barrier with roles in cerebrospinal fluid homeostasis, circulation, and neurogenesis, hence situating ependyma as a main target when treating PHH. Clinical treatments are directed to eliminate immediate inflammatory condition triggered by the bleeding, to drain excess of CSF if needed, but not to treat or recover ependyma structure. Ependymal progenitors were obtained from P0 mice. Cells were cultured under specific conditions to enhance either ependymal proliferation or differentiation status. Different GMH/IVH neuroinflammatory conditions were mimed in the ependyma cultures, different stem cell therapies tested and effect on the ependymal differentiation measured. Additionally, ventricular wall explants from mice with induced PHH were obtained and cultured as ex-vivo system of PHH. A combination of stem cells was applied on the tissue to probe its regenerative capabilities on the multiciliated ependyma. All samples were analyzed through immunofluorescence and laser confocal microscopy and quantified. Results show that (i) ependymal progenitors’ maturation is hindered under neuroinflammatory conditions, showing no multiciliated ependyma and (ii) the tested stem cell combination promotes ependymal progenitors’ survival albeit does not alter the differentiation of the selfsame. In summary, it can be stated that the final differentiation of the ependyma is disrupted by the molecular conditions triggered by GMH/IVH, which our proposed cell therapy is able to counteract through increased survival and differentiation in a murine model of experimental PHHJunta de Andalucia (UMA18-FEDERJA-277) and Instituto de Salud Carlos III (PI19/00778), Spain; co-financed by FEDER funds from the European Union, Spain. Also, II-PPITD, Universidad de Malaga, Spain (to JL-dSS); and I-PPITD, Universidad de Málaga, Spain (to LMR-P) Universidad de Málaga. Campus de Excelencia Internacional Andalucía Tech