Integritetskränkande fotografering ur ett rättighetsperspektiv

Är tiden för privatliv förbi i och med de nya möjligheterna att fotografera med mobilkameror och installera privat övervakningsutrustning? Diskussionen om personlig integritet och dess samband med bildupptagning är inte ny. Däremot har teknikens utveckling och nya snabba kommunikationsvägar via internet bidragit till att frågan är högaktuell och ett ökat skydd mot smygfotografering och filmning blivit allt viktigare. Tätt sammankopplat är frågan om pressens fotografering och publicering av fotografier av offentliga personer, även i synnerligen privata situationer. Uppsatsens syfte är att mot den bakgrunden utreda om det finns ett tillräckligt starkt skydd i Sverige mot fotografering som sker utan den avbildades samtycke och spridning av sådana fotografier, genom att jämföra skyddet för privatlivet enligt Europakonventionen med skyddet enligt svensk nationell rätt. Fotografering och filmning som sker av det allmänna utesluts från uppsatsen. När enbart fotografering nämns åsyftas även filmning. Det är svårt att definiera personlig integritet och var gränsen för ett skyddsvärt område bör gå då det främst bygger på en subjektiv upplevelse. Man kan däremot finna två grundläggande tankar för skyddet inom den rättsliga litteraturen: individens självbestämmanderätt och välbefinnande respektive den sociala gruppgemenskapen och vikten av att kunna bestämma själv vilken bild som ska förmedlas och vad omvärlden får ta del av. Av hänsyn till individens självbestämmanderätt ingår en rätt att inte utan samtycke bli fotograferad av annan då det strider mot rätten att själv kontrollera användandet av den egna bilden. Därutöver innebär spridning av fotografier att andra människor och gruppgemenskapen får ta del av information om individen som inte var avsedd för dem. I Europakonventionens artikel 8 skyddas bland annat rätten till privatliv. Olovlig fotografering omfattas av skyddet för privatliv och medlemsstaterna har en positiv förpliktelse att skydda enskilda vis-à-vis andra enskilda. Kraven på skyddsåtgärder beror på vilken aspekt av privatlivet som berörs och hur allvarlig kränkningen är. Det krävs inte nödvändigtvis straffrättsligt skydd, förutom då fundamentala värden och essentiella aspekter av privatlivet står på spel. I övrigt kan skadeståndsrättsliga regler eller andra metoder vara tillräckliga, så länge de är tydliga samt ger ett praktiskt och effektivt skydd. Olika typer av handlingar vid olovlig fotografering kan enligt Europadomstolens praxis utgöra kränkningar: själva fotograferingen (även i uppsatsen kallat bildupptagning), innehav av tagna fotografier, och spridning av desamma. Avseende olovlig fotografering utgör nakna eller annars intima situationer som blottar en persons sexualliv eller sexuella läggning fundamentala värden och essentiella aspekter av privatlivet. Likaså fotografier tagna i hemmet eller på andra särskilt privata platser såsom toaletter och omklädningsrum. En mer svårbedömd situation är då en person fotograferas på en allmän plats i färd att utföra alldagliga sysslor. Europadomstolen har dock slagit fast att det inkluderas i rätten till privatliv och att en sådan situation ska vägas mot yttrandefriheten, för att pröva om det ryms inom statens ”margin of appreciation”, då en avgörande faktor är huruvida det finns ett allmänt intresse av sådan fotografering. Spridning av fotografier aktualiserar skydd för ryktet och rätten att inte bli beskådad, och en persons legitima förväntan av hur många som i en viss situation kan beskåda ens handlingar blir då avgörande. I dessa situationer ska en avvägning återigen göras mot yttrandefriheten enligt de fem faktorerna i Von Hannover mot Tyskland (Nr 2). I svensk nationell rätt saknas ett generellt skydd för privatlivet. Det finns inte upptaget i regeringsformens rättighetskatalog eller skyddas på annat praktiskt sätt enligt grundlagen. Straffrättsligt är man hänvisad till ofredande och sexuellt ofredande, vilket dock erfordrar att den filmade ska ha uppfattat filmningen (vid sexuellt ofredande är det oklart om det gäller eller inte) samt förtal, vilket förutsätter att det spridda fotografiet är ägnat att utsätta någon för andras missaktning. Regeringen lade fram en proposition i februari 2013 om att kriminalisera “kränkande fotografering”, vilket åsyftar olovlig fotografering i hemmet eller liknande privata platser. Det finns ett behov i svensk rätt att stärka integritetsskyddet vid fotografering då det i jämförelsen med Europakonventionen konstateras att Sverige inte lever upp till dess krav. En orsak är yttrandefrihetsgrundlagarnas starka skydd för publicering av fotomaterial och fotografers meddelarfrihet. Om propositionen antas fylls en del av bristen. Återstår gör dock det faktum att offentliga personer inte över huvud taget skyddas mot fotografering och publicering av fotografier av dem enligt svensk rätt, med undantag för enligt förtalsbrottet som kan tillämpas även på grundlagsskyddade medier. Det krävs någon form av förstärkning av skyddet mot fotografering på allmän plats, även om det är tillräckligt med civilrättsligt skydd. Slutligen förespråkas att regeringens proposition antas och att det läggs fram förslag om ett privatlivskränkningsbrott som tar sikte på spridning/publicering i brottsbalken och yttrandefrihetsgrundlagarnas brottskatalog. Vidare skulle en skadeståndsgrund kunna utformas som ger rätt till ideellt skadestånd vid kränkning av privatlivet.Is the possibility for privacy long gone as a consequence of mobile cameras and easily attainable surveillance camera equipment? The discussion on personal integrity and its correlation with photography is not a new one. However, recent inventions and new fast communication channels through the internet has elevated the actuality of the issue, and a stronger protection against secret photographing and filming (the technological “Peeping Tom”) has become increasingly important. Furthermore, the question is closely connected to media’s taking and publishing of photographs of public figures, also in utterly private situations. The purpose of the essay is to examine whether the protection under Swedish national law against images taken and spread (including through publishing) without consent is sufficient. The purpose is attained by comparing the protection for private life in the European Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (ECHR) article 8 to Swedish national law. Photographing by public authorities is excluded, and while only photography is mentioned in the text, filming is also included. The task to define personal integrity and the limits for what should be considered a protected area is a difficult one, especially considering its subjective character. Two main characteristics can however be found in the legal doctrine: firstly, the individual’s right to his/her own body and the control thereof and further considerations of his/her well being; and secondly, the individual’s interaction with society/the group/other human beings and the importance of having control over what is communicated about oneself to others. The individual’s right to decide over his/her body includes a right not to be photographed without having consented to it, since it breaches the right to control the use of one’s image. Furthermore, the spreading of one’s image infringes the right to decide by whom it may be viewed, and consequently people, who were not intended to, receive private information about the individual. Article 8 of the ECHR protects (inter alia) the right to private life, which extends to protection of a persons picture against the abuse of others. The member states have positive obligations to secure the right to private life also in the sphere of the relations of individuals between themselves. The obligation depends on witch aspect of private life that is at issue. Recourse to criminal law is not necessary, except when fundamental values and essential aspects of private life are concerned. For the rest, the right to damages or other measures may be employed, providing they are clear and provides a practical and effective protection. According to the case-law of the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR), three different acts can be distinguished that may give rise to an infringement of the right to private life: the taking of photographs without consent, the possession of the taken photographs and thirdly the spreading of such photographs. Regarding the taking of photos, naked and intimate situations that show a persons sexual life or sexual orientation concern such fundamental values and essential aspects of private life as mentioned above. The same is true regarding a person’s home or other private places, such as toilets and dressing rooms. A more difficult situation to assess is when someone is photographed in a public place in a non-intimate situation. The ECtHR has established that those situations are included in the protection of private life, and in such cases private life shall be balanced against the freedom of expression in article 10 in order to decide whether the means used to protect it falls within the state’s margin of appreciation. The principles derived from Von Hannover v. Germany (no. 2) decide, and a decisive factor is whether the photos contribute to a debate of general interest. The spreading of photos give rise to the protection of the reputation and the right not to be viewed by more people than what a person in that situation could legitimately expect. Also in these situation a fair balance shall be struck according to the Von Hannover-case above. Swedish national law lacks a general right to privacy. It is not included in the Constitution's (Regeringsformen) catalogue of rights or otherwise protected in a practical way under the Constitution. As to criminal law, one is limited to the crimes of molestation and sexual molestation which, however, require that the victim must have perceived the filming (concerning sexual molestation this criterion is unclear); and defamation, which requires that the photograph is meant to expose someone for the contempt of others. The government proposed in a bill in February 2013 to criminalize "intrusive photography" (kränkande fotografering) which refers to unauthorized photographing in homes or other similar private places. There is a necessity in Swedish national law to strengthen privacy protection in relation to photographs, since Sweden does not live up to the requirements of the ECHR. One reason is the strong constitutional safeguards in the Freedom of the Press Act (TF) and the Fundamental Law on Freedom of Expression (YGL), which protect inter alia free publication and the anonymity of photographers. An adoption of the government’s bill will bring the legislation one step closer to fill the gap. However, it remains a deficiency that public persons are not protected from the taking or publishing of their images under Swedish national law except for the few circumstances where the defamation offence may be applied, which also is a crime under TF and YGL. Furthermore, some kind of increased protection against photographing in public places is necessary, whereas in those circumstances private law provisions would be sufficient. Finally, I advocate that the government’s bill is adopted, and that a privacy violation offense concerning the spreading of photographs could be included in the Penal Code and the catalogue of offences in TF and YGL. Furthermore, a ground for indemnity liability could be established for violations of someone’s right to privacy

The Best or Nothing

Syftet med denna studie är att undersöka vilka köpkriterier som ökar köpintentionen för såväl företagskunder som för privatkunder, vilket i sin tur gör att en kund blir lojal och därmed stärker ett varumärkes värde. Utgångspunkten för uppsatsen har varit i kvalitativ forskningsstrategi där våra undersökningar har varit semistrukturerade intervjuer. Vår primärdata har varit våra intervjuer och sekundärdata har i vårt fall varit de vetenskapliga artiklar och böcker vi använt oss av. Teorier som tagits upp i diskussion handlar om brand loyalty och brand equity. Det har gett oss teoretiska referenser till vår undersökning. Empirin består av tio semistrukturerade intervjuer och fördelades lika mellan åkerier och privatpersoner. Vi kan dra slutsatsen att beroende på om personer är rationella eller emotionella i sitt beslutsfattande så påverkar detta hur lojala de blir till varumärken.The purpose of this study is to examine the buying criteria that increases the intention to buy for both businesscustomers as for privatecustomers, which contributes to becoming a loyal customers and thereby strengthens a brands equity. The starting point for this essay has been in a qualitative research strategy where our research has been semi structured interviews. Our primary data has been our interviews and our secondary data has in our case been the scientific articles and books that we have used. The theories that have been brought up in our discussion are about brand loyalty and brand equity. They have given us theoretical references to our research. The empirical foundation is based on ten semi structured interviews divided equally between trucking companies, business customers, and private automobile customers. We have come to the conclusion that depending on whether a person is rational or emotional in their decision-making will affect their loyalty to a brand

Human SHBG mRNA Translation Is Modulated by Alternative 5′-Non-Coding Exons 1A and 1B

BACKGROUND: The human sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG) gene comprises at least 6 different transcription units (TU-1, -1A, -1B, -1C, -1D and -1E), and is regulated by no less than 6 different promoters. The best characterized are TU-1 and TU-1A: TU-1 is responsible for producing plasma SHBG, while TU-1A is transcribed and translated in the testis. Transcription of the recently described TU-1B, -1C, and -1D has been demonstrated in human prostate tissue and prostate cancer cell lines, as well as in other human cell lines such as HeLa, HepG2, HeK 293, CW 9019 and imr 32. However, there are no reported data demonstrating their translation. In the present study, we aimed to determine whether TU-1A and TU-1B are indeed translated in the human prostate and whether 5' UTR exons 1A and 1B differently regulate SHBG translation. RESULTS: Cis-regulatory elements that could potentially regulate translation were identified within the 5'UTRs of SHBG TU-1A and TU-1B. Although full-length SHBG TU-1A and TU-1B mRNAs were present in prostate cancer cell lines, the endogenous SHBG protein was not detected by western blot in any of them. LNCaP prostate cancer cells transfected with several SHBG constructs containing exons 2 to 8 but lacking the 5'UTR sequence did show SHBG translation, whereas inclusion of the 5'UTR sequences of either exon 1A or 1B caused a dramatic decrease in SHBG protein levels. The molecular weight of SHBG did not vary between cells transfected with constructs with or without the 5'UTR sequence, thus confirming that the first in-frame ATG of exon 2 is the translation start site of TU-1A and TU-1B. CONCLUSIONS: The use of alternative SHBG first exons 1A and 1B differentially inhibits translation from the ATG situated in exon 2, which codes for methionine 30 of transcripts that begin with the exon 1 sequence

Evolution of model proteins on a foldability landscape

We model the evolution of simple lattice proteins as a random walk in a fitness landscape, where the fitness represents the ability of the protein to fold. At higher selective pressure, the evolutionary trajectories are confined to neutral networks where the native structure is conserved and the dynamics are non self-averaging and nonexponential. The optimizability of the corresponding native structure has a strong effect on the size of these neutral networks and thus on the nature of the evolutionary process. Proteins 29:461–466, 1997. © 1997 Wiley-Liss, Inc.Peer Reviewedhttp://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/38527/1/6_ftp.pd

ELISA for Specific Detection of PiZ-Related {alpha}1-Antitrypsin Deficiency.

No abstract availabl

Onboarding during Covid-19 : Effects on newly graduated engineers in Sweden

Background: The global pandemic caused by the virus Covid-19 provided an exogenic chock to the world’s businesses. Governments all over the globe issued various restrictions or requests for all inhabitants that can, to work from home. Due to this, many companies ordered their employees to work from home. Working from home and working virtually became the new normal for many, including their newly hired staff. Objectives: The study examines how the adaptations Swedish engineering companies made to cope with Covid-19 have affected their onboarding processes and the time to productivity. Methodology: Through a survey sent to 327 Swedish engineering businesses asking questions about how their onboarding process and the results thereof has changed due to the adaptations to the pandemic. On top of this, ten interviews with company representatives from the invitation list was performed to try and deepen the understanding of the survey results and to find out if there are any specific onboarding processes or activities that are of extra significance during and after the pandemic to ensure an effective onboarding process. Results: In total, 74 responses for the survey were collected. The study finds that working from home and the use of digital tools and ways of working for onboarding have increased significantly during the pandemic and is expected to remain at an increased level after the pandemic as well. Working from home is expected to be lower than during the pandemic, but higher than before. The change to virtual onboarding appears to have had little or no prolonging effect on time to productivity. Due to the fact that the evidence points towards time to productivity not being very affected by the changes made by the companies during the Covid-19 pandemic, it is hard to know if the themes and actions identified in the interviews as being the most important for an effective onboarding actually have an effect on time to productivity. The most common activities that the interviewees identified as important was mentoring time, structure, information transfer methods and follow ups. Conclusions: The Covid-19 provided an exogen chock to the Swedish engineering businesses that caused them to change their way of working and way of onboarding. Days working from home increased, and so did the use of digital tools and ways of working for onboarding. The results regarding which onboarding activities that affected time to productivity, our results are inconclusive. Recommendations for future research: Several of the interviewed mentions that a part of their staff seems to suffer significantly more than the general staff from working from home and being isolated socially. Further studies into this area could focus on why this group suffers so much more, and how to mitigate this issue. Further studies could also look further into which mechanisms or activities that has the most effect on time to productivity. Our findings were not conclusive on this point

A cDNA coding for human sex hormone binding globulin. Homology to vitamin K-dependent protein S

Affinity purified antibodies to human sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG) were used in screening a human liver cDNA library, constructed in the expression vector lambda gt11. One clone, identified as producing recombinant SHBG, carried a cDNA insert of 1.1 kb. The nucleotide sequence of the insert had an open reading frame coding for 356 amino acid residues. The coding sequence was followed by a short 3'-region of 19 non-translated nucleotides and a poly(A) tail. Confirmation that the cDNA clone represented human SHBG was obtained by the finding of a complete agreement in amino acid sequence with several peptide fragments generated from purified SHBG by proteolytic cleavage. The primary structure of SHBG shows a considerable homology to that of protein S, a vitamin K-dependent protein with functions in the coagulation system

Characterization of the human sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG) gene and demonstration of two transcripts in both liver and testis

A genomic cosmid clone for human sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG), a liver-secreted plasma glycoprotein that binds sex steroids, was isolated with a previously characterized liver cDNA as probe. Southern blot analysis of genomic DNA indicated that only one SHBG gene is present in the human haploid genome. A 3.8 Kb Xba I-fragment of the clone containing the entire coding region of SHBG was sequenced. The SHBG gene has 8 exons. The 5'-end preceding the translation start site had no TATA box or CAAT box promoter elements. Screening of a human testis cDNA library resulted in the isolation of two distinct cDNA forms. One cDNA was identical with the previously characterized liver SHBG cDNA, thus suggesting that human SHBG and the androgen binding protein (ABP) produced by Sertoli cells are coded for by the same gene. The second cDNA differed from the first by having exon I exchanged with a completely different sequence and exon VII deleted. An exon coding for the 5'-end of this cDNA was found in the cosmid clone 1.5 kb upstream of the first SHBG exon. Primer extension experiments showed the alternatively spliced transcript corresponding to the second cDNA to be present in both liver and testis. From the primary structure of this putative SHBG-gene-related protein, it may be deduced that it is a protein very different from SHBG and probably without steroid binding activity