Maturity status effects on torque and muscle architecture of young soccer players

This study investigated the effects of maturity status on knee extensor torque and vastus lateralis architecture of young soccer players. Thirty-four males aged 13–18 years were divided into two groups: pubescent (PUB, n = 15) and postpubescent (POSP, n = 19). Torque by angle interaction was established for absolute [F(2.649, 84.771) = 9.066, p < 0.05] and relative to body mass [F(2.704, 86.533) = 4.050, p < 0.05] isometric torque with the POSP group showing greater values. Muscle volume torque-angle relationship was similar between groups. Absolute, relative to body mass, and relative to muscle volume concentric and eccentric torque-velocity relationship showed a nonsignificant interaction but a significant group effect in favour the POSP group for absolute and concentric torque relative to body mass. Torque-angle and torque-velocity relationship normalized by body mass allometric exponents showed a non-significant interactions and group effects. Muscle thickness (3.6 ± 0.6 vs. 3.8 ± 0.6 cm), fascicle length (8.3 ± 1.4 vs. 8.9 ± 1.6 cm) and pennation angle (15.0 ± 2.3 vs. 14.3 ± 3.2 degrees) was similar between PUB and POSP groups, respectively. Maturity status did not show a significant effect on muscle architecture and on isometric and dynamic torques when allometrically normalized

Triceps surae muscle architecture adaptations to eccentric training

Eccentric exercises have been used in physical training, injury prevention, and rehabilitation programs. The systematic use of eccentric training promotes specific morphological adaptations on skeletal muscles. However, synergistic muscles, such as the triceps surae components, might display different structural adaptations due to differences in architecture, function, and load sharing. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to determine the effects of an eccentric training program on the triceps surae (GM, gastrocnemius medialis; GL, gastrocnemius lateralis; and SO, soleus) muscle architecture. Methods: Twenty healthy male subjects (26 ± 4 years) underwent a 4-week control period followed by a 12-week eccentric training program. Muscle architecture [fascicle length (FL), pennation angle (PA), and muscle thickness (MT)] of GM, GL, and SO was evaluated every 4 weeks by ultrasonography. Results: Fascicle lengths (GM: 13.2%; GL: 8.8%; SO: 21%) and MT (GM: 14.9%; GL: 15.3%; SO: 19.1%) increased from pre- to post-training, whereas PAs remained similar. GM and SO FL and MT increased up to the 8th training week, whereas GL FL increased up to the 4th week. SO displayed the highest, and GL the smallest gains in FL post-training. Conclusion: All three synergistic plantar flexor muscles increased FL and MT with eccentric training. MT increased similarly among the synergistic muscles, while the muscle with the shortest FL at baseline (SO) showed the greatest increase in FL

Triceps surae muscle-tendon properties as determinants of the metabolic cost in trained long-distance runners

Purpose: This study aimed to determine whether triceps surae’s muscle architecture and Achilles tendon parameters are related to running metabolic cost (C) in trained long-distance runners. Methods: Seventeen trained male recreational long-distance runners (mean age = 34 years) participated in this study. C was measured during submaximal steady-state running (5 min) at 12 and 16 km h–1 on a treadmill. Ultrasound was used to determine the gastrocnemius medialis (GM), gastrocnemius lateralis (GL), and soleus (SO) muscle architecture, including fascicle length (FL) and pennation angle (PA), and the Achilles tendon cross-sectional area (CSA), resting length and elongation as a function of plantar flexion torque during maximal voluntary plantar flexion. Achilles tendon mechanical (force, elongation, and stiffness) and material (stress, strain, and Young’s modulus) properties were determined. Stepwise multiple linear regressions were used to determine the relationship between independent variables (tendon resting length, CSA, force, elongation, stiffness, stress, strain, Young’s modulus, and FL and PA of triceps surae muscles) and C (J kg–1m–1) at 12 and 16 km h–1. Results: SO PA and Achilles tendon CSA were negatively associated with C (r2 = 0.69; p < 0.001) at 12 km h–1, whereas SO PA was negatively and Achilles tendon stress was positively associated with C (r2 = 0.63; p = 0.001) at 16 km h–1, respectively. Our results presented a small power, and the multiple linear regression’s cause-effect relation was limited due to the low sample size. Conclusion: For a given muscle length, greater SO PA, probably related to short muscle fibers and to a large physiological cross-sectional area, may be beneficial to C. Larger Achilles tendon CSA may determine a better force distribution per tendon area, thereby reducing tendon stress and C at submaximal speeds (12 and 16 km h–1). Furthermore, Achilles tendon morphological and mechanical properties (CSA, stress, and Young’s modulus) and triceps surae muscle architecture (GM PA, GM FL, SO PA, and SO FL) presented large correlations with C

The effect of quadriceps muscle length on maximum neuromuscular electrical stimulation evoked contraction, muscle rchitecture, and tendon-aponeurosis stiffness

Muscle-tendon unit length plays a crucial role in quadriceps femoris muscle (QF) physiological adaptation, but the influence of hip and knee angles during QF neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES) is poorly investigated. We investigated the effect of muscle length on maximum electrically induced contraction (MEIC) and current efficiency. We secondarily assessed the architecture of all QF constituents and their tendon-aponeurosis complex (TAC) displacement to calculate a stiffness index. This study was a randomized, repeated measure, blinded design with a sample of twenty healthy men aged 24.0 ± 4.6. The MEIC was assessed in four different positions: supine with knee flexion of 60◦ (SUP60); seated with knee flexion of 60◦ (SIT60); supine with knee flexion of 20◦ (SUP20), and seated with knee flexion of 20◦ (SIT20). The current efficiency (MEIC/maximum tolerated current amplitude) was calculated. Ultrasonography of the QF was performed at rest and during NMES to measure pennation angle (θp) and fascicle length (Lf ), and the TAC stiffness index. MEIC and current efficiency were greater for SUP60 and SIT60 compared to SUP20 and SIT20. The vastus lateralis and medialis showed lower θp and higher Lf at SUP60 and SIT60, while for the rectus femoris, in SUP60 there were lower θp and higher Lf than in all positions. The vastus intermedius had a similar pattern to the other vastii, except for lack of difference in θp between SIT60 compared to SUP20 and SIT20. The TAC stiffness index was greater for SUP60. We concluded that NMES generate greater torque and current efficiency at 60◦ of knee flexion, compared to 20◦ . For these knee angles, lengthening the QF at the hip did not promote significant change. Each QF constituent demonstrated muscle physiology patterns according to hip and/or knee angles, even though a greater Lf and lower θp were predominant in SUP60 and SIT60. QF TAC index stiffened in more elongated positions, which probably contributed to enhanced force transmission and slightly higher torque in SUP60. Our findings may help exercise physiologist better understand the impact of hip and knee angles on designing more rational NMES stimulation strategies

The effect of quadriceps muscle length on maximum neuromuscular electrical stimulation evoked contraction, muscle architecture, and tendon-aponeurosis stiffness

Muscle-tendon unit length plays a crucial role in quadriceps femoris muscle (QF) physiological adaptation, but the influence of hip and knee angles during QF neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES) is poorly investigated. We investigated the effect of muscle length on maximum electrically induced contraction (MEIC) and current efficiency. We secondarily assessed the architecture of all QF constituents and their tendon-aponeurosis complex (TAC) displacement to calculate a stiffness index. This study was a randomized, repeated measure, blinded design with a sample of twenty healthy men aged 24.0 ± 4.6. The MEIC was assessed in four different positions: supine with knee flexion of 60° (SUP60); seated with knee flexion of 60° (SIT60); supine with knee flexion of 20° (SUP20), and seated with knee flexion of 20° (SIT20). The current efficiency (MEIC/maximum tolerated current amplitude) was calculated. Ultrasonography of the QF was performed at rest and during NMES to measure pennation angle (θp) and fascicle length (Lf), and the TAC stiffness index. MEIC and current efficiency were greater for SUP60 and SIT60 compared to SUP20 and SIT20. The vastus lateralis and medialis showed lower θp and higher Lf at SUP60 and SIT60, while for the rectus femoris, in SUP60 there were lower θp and higher Lf than in all positions. The vastus intermedius had a similar pattern to the other vastii, except for lack of difference in θp between SIT60 compared to SUP20 and SIT20. The TAC stiffness index was greater for SUP60. We concluded that NMES generate greater torque and current efficiency at 60° of knee flexion, compared to 20°. For these knee angles, lengthening the QF at the hip did not promote significant change. Each QF constituent demonstrated muscle physiology patterns according to hip and/or knee angles, even though a greater Lf and lower θp were predominant in SUP60 and SIT60. QF TAC index stiffened in more elongated positions, which probably contributed to enhanced force transmission and slightly higher torque in SUP60. Our findings may help exercise physiologist better understand the impact of hip and knee angles on designing more rational NMES stimulation strategies

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Ruptura total do tendão de Aquiles : propriedades mecânicas tendíneas em indivíduos submetidos a diferentes protocolos de reabilitação

Introdução. Rupturas agudas do tendão de Aquiles afetam as propriedades mecânicas tendíneas. Estudos vêm preconizando o uso de mobilização precoce (tratamento acelerado) para evitar grandes prejuízos tendíneos. Entretanto, estudos que avaliem as propriedades mecânicas do tendão de Aquiles de humanos após ruptura total, submetidos à mobilização precoce, não foram encontrados na literatura específica da área. Objetivo: comparar as propriedades mecânicas e morfológicas do tendão de Aquiles entre pacientes submetidos a tratamento conservador e pacientes submetidos a tratamento acelerado (mobilização precoce) após a sutura do tendão de Aquiles. Materiais e Métodos: A amostra foi dividida intencionalmente em três grupos: controle (CTR; n=9), grupo conservador (CON; n=9; Pós-Cirúrgico: 28,3±3,6 meses) e grupo acelerado (ACE; n=9; Pós-Cirúrgico: 29,8±4,8 meses). Um dinamômetro isocinético foi utilizado para avaliação do torque dos grupos musculares flexores plantares e flexores dorsais do tornozelo. Foram obtidos os valores de área de secção transversa (AST) e comprimento do tendão (CT) de Aquiles. Para a avaliação da relação stress-strain os sujeitos realizaram duas contrações voluntárias máximas em rampa para flexão plantar no ângulo de 0º com duração de 10 segundos cada. Durante as duas contrações voluntárias máximas o deslocamento da JMT do músculo gastrocnêmio medial com o tendão de Aquiles foi verificado por meio de ultrassonografia utilizando uma sonda com arranjo linear. Simultaneamente a este procedimento, foi adquirido o sinal eletromiográfico do músculo tibial anterior, utilizado para a correção da força do tendão de Aquiles. As imagens necessárias para o cálculo do strain, bem como os sinais EMG e de torque foram sincronizados. Os valores máximos de stress, strain, força, deformação, módulo de Young, CT e AST foram comparados. Resultados: Não foram encontradas diferenças significativas nas propriedades mecânicas e morfológicas entre membros do grupo CTR. Não houve diferença significativa entre os membros saudáveis dos grupos CON e ACE e os do grupo CTR. Dessa forma, os membros saudáveis dos grupos CON e ACE foram utilizados como controle do membro lesão em ambos os grupos. Tanto no grupo CON, quanto no grupo ACE, o stress, a força e o módulo de Young apresentaram menores valores no membro lesionado, enquanto que o strain obtido em 10MPa e a AST foram maiores neste membro comparado ao contralateral saudável. Não houve diferença significativa no CT entre os membros, independente do grupo. Não foram encontradas diferenças significativas nas propriedades mecânicas, bem como na morfologia do tendão de Aquiles na comparação entre os membros lesionados dos grupos CON e ACE. Discussão: Esta maior complacência tendínea encontrada nos tendões lesados, independente do grupo, pode estar associada tanto as adaptações decorrentes da lesão que não recuperaram a níveis de normalidade, bem como a mudança nos hábitos de vida após a lesão. Além disso, o protocolo acelerado de reabilitação não foi capaz de reduzir as perdas advindas da ruptura tendínea. Tal resultado pode estar associado à especificidade do protocolo utilizado, que foi desenhado para ganho de flexibilidade no tornozelo e não para força muscular. Conclusão: Em um período mínimo de 21 meses de pós-operatório o tendão de Aquiles ainda apresenta efeitos deletérios da ruptura total nas propriedades estruturais e mecânicas do tendão. O protocolo de reabilitação utilizado não foi eficaz para a redução de tais efeitos.Introduction. Acute Achilles tendon rupture affects the mechanical properties of the tendon. Despite the tendinous adaptations generated by decreased use, few studies have used early weight bearing (accelerated treatment) to avoid the large losses in the musculoskeletal tissues. In addition, studies that evaluated the mechanical properties of human Achilles tendon after acute rupture, subjected to early weight bearing were not found. Purpose: to compare the mechanical and morphological properties of the Achilles tendon between patients undergoing conservative and accelerated treatment, after Achilles tendon suture. Materials and Methods: subjects were intentionally allocated into three groups: control (CTR; n=9), conservative treatment (CON; n=9; Postsurgical time: 28.3±3.6 months) and accelerated treatment (ACC; n=9; Postsurgical time: 29.8±4.8 months). An isokinetic dynamometer was used to evaluate the torque production of ankle dorsi- and plantar-flexor muscles. The values of Achilles tendon cross sectional area (CSA) and length were obtained. To evaluate the stress-strain relation, patients were asked to produce two isometric maximal voluntary contractions during a ramp protocol (angle: neutral position; duration: 10 seconds) of the plantar flexor muscles. During the maximal contractions the displacement of the myotendinous junction of the gastrocnemius medialis muscle was evaluated by ultrasound with a linear array probe. Simultaneously, the electromyography (EMG) signal of the tibialis anterior was recorded, and used to correct the Achilles tendon force. The ultrasound images, EMG signals and torque were synchronized. The maximal values of stress, strain, force, displacement, Young’s modulus, tendon length and CSA were compared. Results: there were no significant differences in the morphological and mechanical properties between limbs in the CTR group. Moreover, there were no significant differences in the morphological and mechanical properties between healthy limbs amongst groups. Thus, the healthy limbs of the CON and ACC groups were used as control of the injured limb. In CON and ACC groups the stress, force and Young’s modulus had lower values in the injured limb compared to the contralateral healthy limb, while the strain obtained at 10MPa and the CSA were higher in the injured limb. There were no significant differences in the tendon length between groups and limbs. Moreover, there were no significant differences in the morphological and mechanical properties between injured limbs (CON and ACC). Discussion: The highest tendinous compliance found on the injured tendons, independent of the group might be associated to both the adaptations due to injury that did not return to normal healthy levels and to possible changes in the daily life activities after injury. In addition, the accelerated treatment was unable to reduce the losses due to tendon rupture. These results might be associated to the specificity of the rehabilitation protocol used that was designed for the gain of flexibility and not for strength gains. Conclusion: Twenty-one months post-surgery were unable to recover the deleterious effects of acute Achilles tendon rupture on the structural and mechanical tendon properties. The accelerated rehabilitation protocol was ineffective to reduce these deleterious effects

Efeitos do treinamento excêntrico isocinético sobre as propriedades musculotendíneas de flexores plantares de indivíduos saudáveis

O exercício excêntrico tem sido utilizado na prevenção/reabilitação de lesões e em programas de treinamento de força para melhorar o condicionamento físico de indivíduos saudáveis. O entendimento das adaptações causadas pelo treinamento excêntrico nos músculos flexores plantares se justifica: 1) pela importância desta musculatura na manutenção de posturas e no ciclo da marcha; 2) pela alta incidência de lesões do tendão de Aquiles; e 3) pelo uso sistemático deste tipo de treinamento em programas de prevenção e reabilitação do tríceps sural. Assim, a presente tese de doutorado busca verificar os efeitos do treinamento excêntrico nas propriedades neuromecânicas e morfológicas dos músculos flexores plantares. No capítulo I foram compiladas informações acerca das adaptações neuromusculares dos flexores plantares e do tendão de Aquiles de indivíduos saudáveis submetidos à programas de treinamento excêntrico. Os estudos encontrados indicam que o treinamento excêntrico pode aumentar a produção de força e ativação muscular, especialmente em testes excêntricos. No entanto, resultados conflitantes e lacunas identificadas na literatura motivaram a realização de dois estudos originais. Os objetivos dos estudos originais foram: 1) determinar a temporalidade das adaptações na ativação e massa muscular de flexores plantares, bem como sua contribuição para os ganhos de força em contrações excêntricas, isométricas e concêntricas ao longo do programa de treinamento (Capítulo II); e 2) avaliar os efeitos de 12 semanas de treinamento excêntrico nas propriedades morfológicas, mecânicas e materiais do tendão de Aquiles de indivíduos saudáveis (Capítulo III). Vinte participantes do sexo masculino realizaram um programa de treinamento excêntrico isocinético (duas vezes por semana, 3-5 séries de 10 repetições máximas). As avaliações das propriedades neuromecânicas e morfológicas dos flexores plantares foram realizadas a cada quatro semanas. Ao final de 12 semanas, o programa de treinamento excêntrico aumentou a produção de torque máximo excêntrico, isométrico e concêntrico; aumentou a atividade eletromiográfica máxima excêntrica e isométrica; e aumentou a espessura muscular. Além disso, os ângulos do pico de torque excêntrico e concêntrico foram deslocados para posições em que os músculos estavam mais alongados. O torque máximo e a espessura muscular aumentaram progressivamente até a oitava semana de treinamento. A ativação neural durante contrações excêntricas e isométricas aumentou após quatro semanas de treino e permaneceu constante até o final do treinamento, enquanto que a ativação neural durante contrações concêntricas permaneceu inalterada durante todo o período de treinamento. Além disso, houve aumento da área de secção transversa, da rigidez e do módulo de Young do tendão de Aquiles. Os incrementos na rigidez e no módulo de Young foram observados após quatro semanas de treinamento, enquanto que o aumento significativo da área de secção transversa tendínea ocorreu após oito semanas de treinamento. Quando tomados em conjunto, estes resultados nos possibilitam entender de que forma as adaptações neuromecânicas e morfológicas dos flexores plantares ocorrem. O aumento da força isométrica e excêntrica nas primeiras quatro semanas de treinamento parece ocorrer devido a adaptações neurais, musculares e tendíneas. No entanto, após maiores períodos de treinamento (i.e. acima de quatro semanas), o aumento da força ocorre devido a incrementos na massa muscular e na rigidez tendínea. Além disso, a ausência de adaptações neurais evidencia que os ganhos de força concêntrica podem estar relacionados apenas com adaptações musculares e tendíneas.Eccentric exercises are commonly used in prevention, rehabilitation and conditioning training programs. Understanding the adaptations caused by eccentric training on the plantar flexor muscles is justified by: 1) the importance of these muscles in maintaining posture and during gait cycle; 2) the high incidence of Achilles tendon injuries; and 3) the systematic use of this type of training in triceps surae prevention and rehabilitation programs. Thus, the present PhD thesis aims to verify the effects of eccentric training in neuromechanical and morphological properties of the plantar flexor muscles. Chapter I compiled information about the neuromuscular adaptations of the plantar flexors and Achilles tendon of healthy subjects undergoing eccentric training programs. The studies found indicate that eccentric training can increase the production of muscle strength and muscle activation, especially in eccentric tests. The studies found indicate that eccentric training can increase muscle strength and muscle activation, especially in eccentric tests. The purposes of the original studies were: 1) to determine the adaptations time course in plantar flexors activation and muscle mass, as well as their contribution to the strength gains in eccentric, isometric and concentric contractions during the training program (Chapter II); and 2) to evaluate the effects of 12 weeks of eccentric training on Achilles tendon morphological, mechanical and material properties in healthy subjects (Chapter III). Twenty male subjects performed an eccentric isokinetic training program (twice a week, 3-5 sets of 10 maximal repetitions). Plantar flexor neuromechanical and morphological evaluations were performed every 4 weeks. The 12-week training program led to increases in maximum eccentric, isometric and concentric torques; maximum eccentric and isometric electromyographic activity; and muscle thickness. The angles of peak torque in eccentric and concentric tests were shifted towards longer muscle lengths. Maximum torque and muscle thickness increased progressively until the 8th training week. Eccentric and isometric activation increased up to the 4th training week and remained constant until the 12th training week, while no change was found in concentric activation. In addition, Achilles tendon cross-sectional area, stiffness and Young's modulus were increased. The increases in stiffness and Young's modulus were observed after four weeks of training, while the significant increase in tendon cross-sectional area occurred after eight weeks of training. Taken together, these results allow us to understand how the neuromechanical and morphologic adaptations occur in the plantar flexors muscles subjected to a 12-week eccentric training program. The increase in isometric and eccentric strength in the first four weeks of training seems to be related to neural, morphological and tendinous adaptations. However, after longer training periods (i.e. up to four weeks), the strength increase is due to increases in muscle mass and tendon stiffness. Moreover, the absence of evidence in terms of neural adaptations during concentric contractions suggest that the concentric strength gains seem to be related only with muscle and tendon adaptations

Razões de torque e ativação em indivíduos imobilizados após entorse de tornozelo : dados preliminares

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