72 research outputs found

    A global analysis of the impact of COVID-19 stay-at-home restrictions on crime

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    The implementation of COVID-19 stay-at-home policies was associated with a considerable drop in urban crime in 27 cities across 23 countries. More stringent restrictions over movement in public space were predictive of larger declines in crime. The stay-at-home restrictions to control the spread of COVID-19 led to unparalleled sudden change in daily life, but it is unclear how they affected urban crime globally. We collected data on daily counts of crime in 27 cities across 23 countries in the Americas, Europe, the Middle East and Asia. We conducted interrupted time series analyses to assess the impact of stay-at-home restrictions on different types of crime in each city. Our findings show that the stay-at-home policies were associated with a considerable drop in urban crime, but with substantial variation across cities and types of crime. Meta-regression results showed that more stringent restrictions over movement in public space were predictive of larger declines in crime.Peer reviewe

    Neighborhoods without community : collective efficacy and crime in Malmö, Sweden

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    Brottslighet i utsatta bostadsomrĂ„den har de senaste Ă„ren fĂ„tt stort utrymme i samhĂ€llsdebatten. Polisen har börjat sammanstĂ€lla nationella listor över de bostadsomrĂ„den i Sverige som anses prĂ€glas av kriminella nĂ€tverk, samtidigt har media rapporterat att vissa brott, frĂ€mst skjutningar och bilbrĂ€nder, Ă€r betydligt vanligare i dessa omrĂ„den Ă€n i andra delar av samhĂ€llet. Denna avhandling undersöker utsatta bostadsomrĂ„den och brottslighet i Malmö och bidrar pĂ„ sĂ„ vis till att öka kunskapen om brottslighet i denna typ av omrĂ„den. Mina studier visar att det finns en stark koppling mellan ett bostadsomrĂ„des kollektiva förmĂ„ga, kombinationen av tillit och samarbete för att lösa problem, och mĂ€ngden gatuvĂ„ld, men inte nĂ„gon sĂ„dan koppling till anlagda brĂ€nder pĂ„ bostadsomrĂ„desnivĂ„. Studierna visar Ă€ven att sĂ„vĂ€l anlagda brĂ€nder som kollektiv förmĂ„ga förstĂ„s bĂ€st pĂ„ mycket mindre geografiska analysenheter Ă€n bostadsomrĂ„den. Avhandlingen berör tvĂ„ grundlĂ€ggande frĂ„gestĂ€llningar, som bĂ„da Ă€r av relevans för hur vi kan förstĂ„ utsatta bostadsomrĂ„den. Den första frĂ„gan handlar om hur bostadsomrĂ„den ska definieras, och hur stora omrĂ„den det Ă€r meningsfullt att prata om som sammanhĂ€ngande enheter. I polisens sammanstĂ€llning av utsatta omrĂ„den rĂ€knas till exempel Rinkeby-Tensta i Stockholm med 34 903 invĂ„nare som ett sĂ„dant, men ocksĂ„ Seved i Malmö som Ă€r en del av bostadsomrĂ„det Södra Sofielund med 5 570 invĂ„nare. Den andra frĂ„gan handlar om huruvida kopplingen mellan brottslighet och fattigdom, segregation kan förklaras av skillnader i de boendes kollektiva förmĂ„ga att hantera problem. Kollektiv förmĂ„ga definieras som kombinationen av tillit och gemensamma förvĂ€ntningar om att agera för det allmĂ€nnas bĂ€sta i ett bostadsomrĂ„de, och kan ses som en form av socialt kapital som Ă€r sĂ€rskilt viktig i relation till brott, oordning och otrygghet. I avhandlingen studeras huruvida kollektiv förmĂ„ga kan förklara varför det Ă€r mer gatuvĂ„ld och anlagda brĂ€nder i vissa bostadsomrĂ„den i Malmö. Avseende gatuvĂ„ld identifieras mycket riktigt en sĂ„dan koppling. Utsatta omrĂ„den som bland annat prĂ€glas av ekonomisk och social utsatthet samt etnisk heterogenitet och stor omflyttning har mer gatuvĂ„ld Ă€n andra platser, men om hĂ€nsyn tas till att dessa omrĂ„den ocksĂ„ har ocksĂ„ en lĂ€gre kollektiv förmĂ„ga spelar inte lĂ€ngre nivĂ„n av utsatthet, etnisk heterogenitet eller omflyttning nĂ„gon roll. FörstĂ„elsen för gatuvĂ„ld förbĂ€ttras dessutom nĂ€r hĂ€nsyn tas till variabler baserade pĂ„ rutinaktivitetsteorin, som bland annat sĂ€ger att var brott begĂ„s till stor del kan förstĂ„s utifrĂ„n var motiverade gĂ€rningspersoner och potentiella offer möts. Centrala platser i staden kommer att ha mer brott just pĂ„ grund av mĂ€ngden folk, alldeles oavsett nivĂ„ av utsatthet eller mĂ€ngden invĂ„nare i bostadsomrĂ„det. För att mĂ€ta det inkluderas variabler över hur mĂ„nga personer som kliver pĂ„ lokalbussen i nĂ€rheten av bostadsomrĂ„det under ett Ă„r samt mĂ€ngden barer och nattklubbar, och detta bidrar i analysen till en bĂ€ttre förstĂ„else för varför vissa bostadsomrĂ„den har mer gatuvĂ„ld Ă€n andra. GatuvĂ„ld i Malmö kan till stor del förstĂ„s som tvĂ„ delvis separata processer, det Ă€r mycket gatuvĂ„ld i centrum, kopplat till nattliv och stora mĂ€ngder folk i rörelse, och det Ă€r relativt mycket gatuvĂ„ld i utsatta bostadsomrĂ„den med lĂ„g kollektiv förmĂ„ga. Huruvida den bristande kollektiva förmĂ„gan faktiskt Ă€r en kausal orsak till gatuvĂ„ldet kan denna studie ej sĂ€ga, men sambandet hĂ„ller Ă€ven nĂ€r hĂ€nsyn tas till mĂ€ngden gatuvĂ„ld under tidigare Ă„r. NĂ€r det gĂ€ller anlagda brĂ€nder finns inte nĂ„got signifikant samband med omrĂ„dets nivĂ„ av kollektiv förmĂ„ga. OmrĂ„den med mycket brĂ€nder tenderar att ha en lĂ„g kollektiv förmĂ„ga, men sambandet försvinner nĂ€r hĂ€nsyn tas till ett omrĂ„des fattigdom och liknande. I teorin om kollektiv förmĂ„ga behandlas social och ekonomisk utsatthet samt etnisk heterogenitet som tvĂ„ viktiga variabler, men i Malmös fall visar det sig att dessa samvarierar sĂ„ mycket att det inte gĂ„r att separera dem. OmrĂ„den dĂ€r de boende kommer frĂ„n mĂ„nga olika delar av vĂ€rlden Ă€r ocksĂ„ omrĂ„den dĂ€r bland annat arbetslösheten och trĂ„ngboddheten Ă€r hög. Dessa omrĂ„den har ocksĂ„ mĂ„nga anlagda brĂ€nder, inklusive bilbrĂ€nder, men det förklaras inte av kollektiv förmĂ„ga pĂ„ bostadsomrĂ„desnivĂ„, utan av andra, okĂ€nda, mekanismer. Avhandlingens andra huvudfrĂ„gestĂ€llning fokuserar pĂ„ hur ett bostadsomrĂ„de ska definieras. Det görs i tvĂ„ separata studier, en som berör hur stora omrĂ„den som Ă€r lĂ€mpliga för att förstĂ„ den kollektiva förmĂ„gan, och en avseende hur omrĂ„den bör definieras för att förstĂ„ anlagda brĂ€nder och kollektiv förmĂ„ga. NĂ€r det gĂ€ller sammanhĂ„llning och gemensamt agerande för att hantera problem, kollektiv förmĂ„ga, noteras att boende som intervjuas i fyra bostadsomrĂ„den framför allt har förvĂ€ntningar kring detta pĂ„ sin gĂ„rd eller i sitt kvarter, inte i det betydligt större bostadsomrĂ„det. Detta bekrĂ€ftas ocksĂ„ av en statistisk analys av en boendeenkĂ€t i dessa fyra bostadsomrĂ„den. Kollektiv förmĂ„ga verkar primĂ€rt ta plats pĂ„ ganska smĂ„ geografiska analysenheter med 1000 invĂ„nare eller mindre, snarare Ă€n de relativt stora bostadsomrĂ„den som ofta Ă€r utgĂ„ngspunkt för sĂ„vĂ€l akademiska studier som samhĂ€lleliga förebyggande insatser. Ett liknande fenomen noteras nĂ€r det gĂ€ller anlagda brĂ€nder. Dessa förstĂ„s bĂ€st genom att studera vad som finns pĂ„ den specifika plats dĂ€r det brinner, och bostadsomrĂ„dets inflytande Ă€r som störst om vi utgĂ„r frĂ„n mycket smĂ„ bostadsomrĂ„den. SĂ„vĂ€l kollektiv förmĂ„ga som anlagda brĂ€nder förstĂ„s bĂ€st utifrĂ„n smĂ„ geografiska enheter.Det kan inte uteslutas att det pĂ„ en sĂ„dan lĂ€gre nivĂ„ ocksĂ„ finns en koppling mellan förekomst av anlagda brĂ€nder och nivĂ„n av kollektiv förmĂ„ga Ă€ven om en sĂ„dan koppling alltsĂ„ ej finns pĂ„ bostadsomrĂ„desnivĂ„. Sammanfattningsvis visar avhandlingen att vi bör fokusera pĂ„ smĂ„ geografiska enheter för att förstĂ„ brott, och att vi kanske dĂ„ snarast bör prata om utsatta gator eller kvarter snarare Ă€n bostadsomrĂ„den. NĂ€r det gĂ€ller större geografiska enheter gĂ„r det att förstĂ„ vĂ„ldsbrott utifrĂ„n förekomsten av tillit och kollektiv förmĂ„ga i ett bostadsomrĂ„de. Avhandlingens titel, ”Neighborhoods without community”, som översatt till svenska blir ”BostadsomrĂ„de utan gemenskap”, syftar pĂ„ fyndet att bostadsomrĂ„den inte bestĂ„r av ett socialt sammanhang, utan snarare av mĂ„nga mindre, och att den kollektiva förmĂ„gan i vissa omrĂ„den Ă€r lĂ„g. Även om dessa omrĂ„den ocksĂ„ ofta prĂ€glas av stolthet och ett levande civilsamhĂ€lle dominerar problemen, att vĂ€nda utvecklingen i dessa omrĂ„den framstĂ„r som en av de viktigaste uppgifterna inom det kriminalpolitiska fĂ€ltet i Sverige idag. Genom att fokusera pĂ„ gatan, gĂ„rden eller kvarteret snarare Ă€n stora bostadsomrĂ„den och stĂ€rka de boendes kollektiva förmĂ„ga finns möjlighet att vĂ€nda utvecklingen. I framtida forskning Ă€r det av vikt att gĂ„ vidare med mer detaljerade studier av brottsligheten, men Ă€ven att undersöka om vi kan stĂ€rka den kollektiva förmĂ„gan, och om detta resulterar i minskad brottslighet.This thesis explores the connection between neighborhoods and crime from a perspective of both opportunity theories and social disorganization theory. It consists of four papers primarily connected to two research questions with corresponding methods- and results sections. First, it considers how a neighborhood should be defined, which is studied in relation to arson and collective efficacy in two papers. The findings for collective efficacy are based on semi-structured interviews with residents and people working in four neighborhoods (N=39) and a small community survey in the same neighborhoods (N=691). The findings for arson are based on data over outdoors arson from the rescue services. These are studied in relation to artificial neighborhoods of different sizes and degrees of randomness. Results suggest that neighborhoods should be small to capture crime-relevant social processes. The second question examines the association of collective efficacy with crime, which is modeled net of controls in relation to violence and arson. Collective efficacy data was retrieved from a community survey in Malmö in 2012 (N=4051) and controls include concentrated disadvantage, ethnic heterogeneity, residential instability and urbanity. Here, results show a strong association with public environment violence but no association with outdoors arson on the neighborhood level. The thesis concludes with a suggestion to study crime by examining micro-place opportunity structures nested in (micro-) neighborhood social disorganization

    Intra-neighborhood distribution of collective efficacy and disorder : The importance of geographical units of analysis

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    Spatial analysis of the distribution of crime and disorder often depart from the concept of neighborhood as geographical unit of analysis. Collective efficacy, the combination of working trust and expectations of a willingness to act for the common good, has been shown to tap into important social mechanisms that can explain the differences between neighborhoods. How such social mechanisms function in a neighborhood and how it impacts on spatial distribution of disorder within rather than between neighborhoods is rarely studied. In a case study of four Swedish neighborhoods differences within and between neighborhoods have been studied. Social networks, collective efficacy and indirectly the social construction of neighborhoods have been discussed in focus groups with residents of the neighborhoods and in key informant interviews with property managers and active members of local associations. Social boundaries within the neighborhoods emerge clearly from respondents’ stories with corresponding intra-neighborhood differences in respondents’ perceptions of collective efficacy, safety and disorder. Few respondents express any neighborhood-wide feelings of social cohesion which points toward the possibility that neighborhoods can be considered aggregates of smaller socio-spatial units. To study whether the socio-spatial units identified through the interviews differ in levels of physical disorder a systematic social observation (SSO) has been performed during 2011. The data have been analyzed both through aggregation based on social boundaries expressed in the interviews and through the use of density- and hotspot based methods where no pre-defined geographical units are needed. Results from the analysis of spatial distributionof physical disorder show that the social boundaries identified within neighborhoods matter in determining how disorder is distributed within the neighborhood. A preliminary conclusion is that the social mechanism of collective efficacy is best understood on much smaller units of analysis than typical neighborhoods

    Smallest is Better? : The Spatial Distribution of Arson and the Modifiable Areal Unit Problem

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    Objectives The aim of this study is to explore how the zonation and scale problems of the modifiable areal unit problem (MAUP) impact on the proportion of variance associated with surrounding areas in relation to micro-place levels of arson. MAUP is related to how geographical areas are constructed, with zonation related to how boundaries are drawn, and scale related to the size of areas. Methods Arson point data from 2007 to 2011 are analyzed by means of hierarchical linear modeling in order to compute intra-class correlations (ICCs), the share of variance associated with the higher order geographical units, for geographical units of three different sizes and with three degrees of randomness. Real, administrative, geographical units of two sizes, with mean size of 1.2 and 0.4 square kilometers respectively, are compared both to semi-random and fully-random artificial geographical units of the same size, and to smaller types of units of 0.17 square kilometer size. Results The analysis shows that there is little difference between large and mediumsized geographical units, but there is a significant increase in the ICC at the smallest geographical scale. To understand the geography of arson this suggests that the smallest types of units are of the greatest importance. As regards the problem of zonation, the results show that more randomness of boundary placement is associated with lower ICCs. Conclusion A key implication of these findings is that community preventive efforts may best be targeted at very small communities such as street blocks rather than larger neighborhoods

    Quantifying the geographic (un)reliability of police data

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    Place-based policing has attracted a substantial amount of attention, not least in relation to hot spot policing. Such policing efforts depend on geographical analysis of where crime takes place. However, while it is well known that police crime data suffer from many limitations, less is known about the extent to which the geographical reliability of these data constitutes a problem. The present study attempts to quantify the extent of this problem by exploiting the fact that in Sweden there is an alternative, and more reliable, source of geographical data for incidents of arson. The study compares the locations for car arson incidents as recorded by the police and the rescue services, respectively. The resulting quantification of differences shows that the median error for the police data is 83 meters. This presents a potential pitfall for geographical analysis, both for researchers using police data and for the police themselves in their operational and strategic analysis of crime

    Forskning kring anlagda brÀnder

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    I detta kapitel sammanfattas ett urval av forskning kring anlagda brÀnder. Tanken Àr att tÀcka sÄ mycket som möjligt av svensk forskning inom omrÄdet och göra vissa nedslag i den internationella. Den forskning som studerats kan grovt sett indelas i tvÄ typer; dels sÄdan som specifikt behandlar just anlagda brÀnder, ofta med en psykologisk, neurologisk eller teknisk infallsvinkel, dels forskning som betraktar anlagda brÀnder som en delmÀngd av större problem som social oordning eller brottslighet och inte Àr specifikt inriktad mot bara brÀnder. Avsikten Àr att forskningsöversikten ska ha nÄgon form av relevans för en studie av anlagda brÀnder som Àven omfattar sociala processer. För att göra det hela lÀttöverskÄdligt Àr översikten indelad i fem avsnitt som vardera bidrar till att besvara en frÄga1, innan det i det sjÀtte och sista avsnittet dras nÄgra slutsatser och görs en reflektion kring relevansen för forskning kring sociala processers inverkan pÄ anlagda brÀnder. De fem avsnitten behandlar frÄgorna om vad en anlagd brand Àr, vilka det Àr som anlÀgger brÀnder, varför de gör det, var/nÀr brÀnder anlÀggs och vad som kan göras Ät det

    Neighborhoods, Collective Efficacy, and the Case for Micro-Neighborhoods

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    The neighborhood is the main geographical unit of analysis for the study of social mechanisms impacting on crime and disorder. An important neighborhood social mechanism is collective efficacy, the combination of trust and shared expectations of social control, but whether trust and shared expectations actually take place at the neighborhood level is rarely studied. In a case study of four Swedish neighborhoods intra-neighborhood differences in collective efficacy is discussed in relation to spatial distribution of disorder. Social capital, including trust and shared expectations of social control (collective efficacy), have been examined through semi-structured focus group- and key informant interviews and a survey where the geographical units of analysis average below 200 residents. Physical disorder have been mapped through a systematic social observation (SSO) employing gps-coordinates to all observations and analyzed through geographic information systems employing density- and hotspot based methods. Findings show large intra-neighborhood differences in both collective efficacy and disorder suggesting that collective efficacy on the neighborhood level is best understood as an aggregate of smaller geographical units of analysis, micro-neighborhoods

    Var och nÀr skjuts det?

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    SkjutvapenvÄldet har ökat kraftigt sedan 1990-talet, och sÀrskilt under 2010-talet, men fram till de senaste Ären har det funnits vÀldigt lite kunskap om hurökningen sett ut samt var och nÀr det skjuts. I denna artikel redovisas fyndenfrÄn fyra deskriptiva studier om skjutvapenvÄldet i Sverige, med ett sÀrskiltfokus pÄ möjligheten att identifiera platser och tider med förhöjd risk för skjutningar vilket kan anvÀndas i det förebyggande och brottsbekÀmpande arbetet.UtifrÄn en princip om att brott följs av nya brott inom korta avstÄnd i tid ochrum kan prediktion av sÄ ovanliga hÀndelser som skjutningar bli möjligt

    Does the Association Between Flows of People and Crime Differ Across Crime Types in Sweden?

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    Places with persistently high levels of crime, hot spots, are an important object of study. To some extent, the high levels of crime at such hot spots are likely to be related to flows of people. City center locations with large flows of people are quite often also hot spots, e.g., hot spots for pick pocketing at a central train station, or hot spots for assault in the nightlife district. This can be related to crime pattern theory, or to the routine activity perspective, which both suggest that flows of people can affect crime. The present study attempts to explore and quantify whether there are differences in the association between flows of people and crime for different crime types. The analysis considers locations with high crime counts for six crime types in the city of Malmö, Sweden. For each crime type, hot spots are identified and mapped, and in order to explore whether, or how, these are related to flows of people, the crime levels are then analyzed in relation to the number of people who boarded a local bus (N = 33,134,198) nearby. The paper shows that all six crime types are associated with flows of people, although less so for arson and vandalism. This is hypothesized to be due to the relatively constant target availability for these crimes as opposed to the other crime types studied
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