The market development of avaition biofuel: drivers and constraints

Aviation biofuel is technically viable and nearing the commercial stage. In the last ten years, biofuels have moved from relative obscurity to a point where certain types of fuel have become fully certified for commercial use in up to 50% blends with standard jet fuel and commercial partnerships between airlines and biofuel producers are being established. Yet despite numerous successful test flights, aviation biofuels have yet to become widely commercialised. Drawing on the findings of in-depth interviews with leading global aviation biofuel stakeholders undertaken between October and December 2011, this paper identifies and examines the perceived factors that are affecting the market development of biofuels for aviation. The paper illustrates that market development is being driven by the combined effects of rising jet fuel prices, the potential future impact of emissions legislation and concerns about fuel (in)security. However, commercialisation is being constrained by high production costs, limited availability of suitable feedstocks, uncertainty surrounding the definition of the sustainability criteria, and a perceived lack of both national and international political and policy support for aviation biofuel. The implications of these findings for commercial aviation and the future development of global market for aviation biofuel market are discussed

Factors affecting the emergence, development and uptake of aviation biofuels

Aviation biofuel is technically viable and nearing the commercial stage. In the last 5 years aviation biofuel has moved from relative obscurity to become fully certified for commercial use in up to 50% blends with standard jet fuel. There have since been 15 successful commercial flight tests using aviation biofuels including Lufthansa s six month trial operating on a passenger revenue generating route in 2011. Airlines and biofuel companies such as British Airways and Solena are furthermore beginning to form partnerships to finance specialised aviation biofuel production facilities. However, aviation biofuels have yet to become widely commercialised. In fact, there are a series of issues preventing the emergence, development and uptake of aviation biofuels. The main issues are perceived as high costs of manufacture, limited availability of feedstocks, controversy surrounding the effect on food prices and the emissions output from land use change. Furthermore, there is a significant lack of academic peer reviewed literature which investigates these issues or offers solutions to support the development of the technology. This thesis aims to investigate the factors that affect the emergence, development and uptake of aviation biofuels by drawing upon in-depth stakeholder interviews and survey data. Strategic niche management (SNM) theory is used and extended to analyse the contemporary issues and develop recommendations to support the continued emergence, development and uptake of aviation biofuels. It is concluded that the emergence, development and uptake is being driven mainly by rising jet fuel prices, growing concern regarding aviation emissions legislation and fuel (in)security. Airlines, biofuel producers and specialised supply chain companies are driving emergence, development and uptake due to commercial opportunities. Despite these drivers, the emergence, development and uptake is being constrained by a combination of ineffective policy provision, high costs of production, limited feedstocks and uncertainty surrounding sustainability. Ineffective and unsuitable policy is exacerbating the issues of high production costs, limited feedstocks and sustainability. In particular, competition between aviation and road biofuels is limiting aviation biofuel expansion. Recommendations are to develop nurtured niche markets for aviation biofuels using principles from SNM. Within these markets, aviation biofuels are afforded commercial viability in order to learn about supply chain development, longer term infrastructural requirements and technological development. Information should be shared between the niche markets in order to maximise learning by doing and speed up efficiency gains. Once niche markets are established, the incentives and protection should be gradually reduced to allow a competitive aviation biofuel industry to develop

Elevated cholesterol in ATAD3 mutants is a compensatory mechanism that leads to membrane cholesterol aggregation

Aberrant cholesterol metabolism causes neurological disease and neurodegeneration, and mitochondria have been linked to perturbed cholesterol homeostasis via the study of pathological mutations in the ATAD3 gene cluster. However, whether the cholesterol changes were compensatory or contributory to the disorder was unclear, and the effects on cell membranes and the wider cell were also unknown. Using patient-derived cells, we show that cholesterol perturbation is a conserved feature of pathological ATAD3 variants that is accompanied by an expanded lysosome population containing membrane whorls characteristic of lysosomal storage diseases. Lysosomes are also more numerous in Drosophila neural progenitor cells expressing mutant Atad3, which exhibit abundant membrane-bound cholesterol aggregates, many of which co-localize with lysosomes. By subjecting the Drosophila Atad3 mutant to nutrient restriction and cholesterol supplementation, we show that the mutant displays heightened cholesterol dependence. Collectively, these findings suggest that elevated cholesterol enhances tolerance to pathological ATAD3 variants; however, this comes at the cost of inducing cholesterol aggregation in membranes, which lysosomal clearance only partly mitigates.M.M.O. was supported by a predoctoral fellowship from the University of the Basque Country (PIF18/317) and later partially supported by the Ikerbasque, Basque Foundation for Science IKUR strategy Neurodegenprot project. A.L. and U.F.P. were recipients of pre-doctoral fellowships from the Basque Government (PRE_2019_1_0184 and PRE_2018_1_0253). The study was supported by funding to I.J.H. from the Instituto de Salud Carlos III (PI17-00380; PI20/00096) and the Basque Government Department of Health (Osasun Saila, Eusko Jaurlaritzako) (grants 2021111070; 2022333050; 2018111043; 2018222031). A.Sp. receives support from Miriam Marks Senior Fellowship, Brain Research UK (202021-26), the Research Councils UK (MR/X002365/1) and the Lily Foundation. W.H.Y. is supported by the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (5R01 NS121298-03) of the National Institutes of Health, Oklahoma Center for Adult Stem Cell Research (OCASCR) (221009 and 241006) and Presbyterian Health Foundation (4411-09-10-0).Peer reviewe

The development of seaweed-derived fuels in the UK: An analysis of stakeholder issues and public perceptions

Macroalgae (seaweed)-derived fuels are gaining increasing attention due to the high rate of seaweed growth, its lack of lignocellulose (which makes for energy-efficient processing), its lack of need for land or freshwater, and its potential suitability for commercial applications in the UK. However, while technological issues are progressively being solved, wider issues of stakeholder and public perception have largely been ignored, potentially hindering the development of this technology. This research fills this gap by conducting 19 interviews with stakeholders and 7 focus groups with members of the public to gain a deeper and broader understanding of perceptions of macroalgae-derived fuels. The results highlight the technological promise and confidence in the potential of macroalgae-derived fuels. However, they also emphasise conflicts and uncertainties among stakeholders (e.g. competition with other high-value products derived from macroalgae) and the general public (e.g. conflict with marine users). This paper provides insight into potential social resistance and key issues in the macroalgae-to-fuels supply chain. This information will enable two-way communication between everyone involved and increase the likelihood of successfully developing this supply chain. Key policy issues are discussed to facilitate this communication and encourage investment in the process

UK Macro-Algae Biofuels: A Strategic Management Review and Future Research Agenda

Macro-algae is increasingly gaining attention as a potential feedstock for biofuels and as a potential alternative fuel for aviation. Technological aspects are showing promise, and being examined more widely. This paper uses a strategic management perspective to complete an initial macro-environmental scan of the potential opportunities and threats to a seaweed biofuels industry. This is in response to calls to look beyond technological aspects, and highlights the importance of social acceptance. It is clear that very little is known about the potential economic, social, environmental and political/legal issues that might arise in the development of this industry. While we can look at the development of other, more established renewable technologies and seaweed industries away from the UK to highlight potential issues this does not give us a clear picture. Further research is needed to ensure that a proactive approach is used to research and inform stakeholders who will affect the further technological development and commercialization of the industry

Stakeholder Views of the Factors Affecting the Commercialization of Aviation Biofuels in Europe

Biofuels are being advocated by certain sections of the commercial aviation industry as a means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions and lowering fossil-fuel dependency within the confines of current aircraft technology and infrastructure. Rising oil prices, increasingly stringent environmental legislation, and continued growth in air travel demand have stimulated the development of renewable lower-carbon fuel alternatives that can act as a substitute for conventional Jet A1 kerosene. However, although biofuels may offer a number of apparent benefits, barriers to widespread commercial uptake and deployment remain, including concerns about competition for feedstocks and impact on global water resources and biodiversity. The processes involved in the uptake of aviation-grade biofuels are not straightforward and there is a need to explore the factors affecting commercial deployment. This paper reports on the findings of a series of in-depth semistructured interviews with key aviation stakeholders in Europe. The research reveals that concerns about the supply of suitable feedstocks, uncertainty surrounding the true life-cycle emissions savings of the fuels, and the perceived lack of policy support are key obstacles that need to be addressed before aviation biofuels can be widely utilized. The research also reveals that the potential inclusion of aviation within the EU Emissions Trading Scheme will create a zero accounting “loophole” for biofuel that may uniquely influence the pattern of uptake in the EU vis-à-vis other world markets. Additional key constraints identified include limitations on the supply of suitable feedstocks, concerns about sustainability of the fuels, and uncertain policy support

Stakeholder views of the factors affecting the commercialization of aviation biofuels in Europe

Biofuels are being advocated by certain sections of the commercial aviation industry as a means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions and lowering fossil-fuel dependency within the confines of current aircraft technology and infrastructure. Rising oil prices, increasingly stringent environmental legislation, and continued growth in air travel demand have stimulated the development of renewable lower-carbon fuel alternatives that can act as a substitute for conventional Jet A1 kerosene. However, although biofuels may offer a number of apparent benefits, barriers to widespread commercial uptake and deployment remain, including concerns about competition for feedstocks and impact on global water resources and biodiversity. The processes involved in the uptake of aviation-grade biofuels are not straightforward and there is a need to explore the factors affecting commercial deployment. This paper reports on the findings of a series of in-depth semistructured interviews with key aviation stakeholders in Europe. The research reveals that concerns about the supply of suitable feedstocks, uncertainty surrounding the true life-cycle emissions savings of the fuels, and the perceived lack of policy support are key obstacles that need to be addressed before aviation biofuels can be widely utilized. The research also reveals that the potential inclusion of aviation within the EU Emissions Trading Scheme will create a zero accounting “loophole” for biofuel that may uniquely influence the pattern of uptake in the EU vis-à-vis other world markets. Additional key constraints identified include limitations on the supply of suitable feedstocks, concerns about sustainability of the fuels, and uncertain policy support

Guidelines for the use and interpretation of assays for monitoring autophagy

In 2008 we published the first set of guidelines for standardizing research in autophagy. Since then, research on this topic has continued to accelerate, and many new scientists have entered the field. Our knowledge base and relevant new technologies have also been expanding. Accordingly, it is important to update these guidelines for monitoring autophagy in different organisms. Various reviews have described the range of assays that have been used for this purpose. Nevertheless, there continues to be confusion regarding acceptable methods to measure autophagy, especially in multicellular eukaryotes. A key point that needs to be emphasized is that there is a difference between measurements that monitor the numbers or volume of autophagic elements (e.g., autophagosomes or autolysosomes) at any stage of the autophagic process vs. those that measure flux through the autophagy pathway (i.e., the complete process); thus, a block in macroautophagy that results in autophagosome accumulation needs to be differentiated from stimuli that result in increased autophagic activity, defined as increased autophagy induction coupled with increased delivery to, and degradation within, lysosomes (in most higher eukaryotes and some protists such as Dictyostelium) or the vacuole (in plants and fungi). In other words, it is especially important that investigators new to the field understand that the appearance of more autophagosomes does not necessarily equate with more autophagy. In fact, in many cases, autophagosomes accumulate because of a block in trafficking to lysosomes without a concomitant change in autophagosome biogenesis, whereas an increase in autolysosomes may reflect a reduction in degradative activity. Here, we present a set of guidelines for the selection and interpretation of methods for use by investigators who aim to examine macroautophagy and related processes, as well as for reviewers who need to provide realistic and reasonable critiques of papers that are focused on these processes. These guidelines are not meant to be a formulaic set of rules, because the appropriate assays depend in part on the question being asked and the system being used. In addition, we emphasize that no individual assay is guaranteed to be the most appropriate one in every situation, and we strongly recommend the use of multiple assays to monitor autophagy. In these guidelines, we consider these various methods of assessing autophagy and what information can, or cannot, be obtained from them. Finally, by discussing the merits and limits of particular autophagy assays, we hope to encourage technical innovation in the field