From the History of Religions to the Study of Religion in Denmark: An Essay on the Subject, Organizational History and Research Themes

The history of the academic study of religion in Denmark resembles developments in other Nordic and European countries as it has moved from a primarily historical-philological and comparative ‘history of religions’ towards a broader ‘study of religion(s)’ that includes history of religions together with theories and methods from a wide variety of the human, social and today also natural sciences. Uppsala University was one of the three main centers of positivism at the end of the 19th century, and its influence was evident and long-lasting also in Denmark. By the end of the 1970s, debates and reflections on methods and theories slowly began to have a greater impact, and from the mid-80s and especially mid-90s, also due to conscious efforts not least in Aarhus, methodological issues gained in importance. A turn towards contemporary religion also became evident. Today it may be claimed that a kind of balance has been achieved whereby historical and empirical studies of religions go hand in hand with theoretical and methodological reflections, and where a balance between, on the one hand, more classical comparative history of religions materials and approaches, and, on the other hand, new and different areas of research, and new and different approaches and theories are of equal importance. With regard to individual research, research programs, and study programs, the history of the history of religions in Denmark cannot be described in detail here. This article presents the broad picture of important developments within and across the three Danish universities that have study of religion departments. Although the early histories are briefly touched upon, the focus will be on the past 50 years, from about 1960 until 2014, thus roughly the same period that Temenos has been in existence.

From the History of Religions to the Study of Religion in Denmark: An Essay on the Subject, Organizational History and Research Themes

The history of the academic study of religion in Denmark resembles developments in other Nordic and European countries as it has moved from a primarily historical-philological and comparative ‘history of religions’ towards a broader ‘study of religion(s)’ that includes history of religions together with theories and methods from a wide variety of the human, social and today also natural sciences. Uppsala University was one of the three main centers of positivism at the end of the 19th century, and its influence was evident and long-lasting also in Denmark. By the end of the 1970s, debates and reflections on methods and theories slowly began to have a greater impact, and from the mid-80s and especially mid-90s, also due to conscious efforts not least in Aarhus, methodological issues gained in importance. A turn towards contemporary religion also became evident. Today it may be claimed that a kind of balance has been achieved whereby historical and empirical studies of religions go hand in hand with theoretical and methodological reflections, and where a balance between, on the one hand, more classical comparative history of religions materials and approaches, and, on the other hand, new and different areas of research, and new and different approaches and theories are of equal importance. With regard to individual research, research programs, and study programs, the history of the history of religions in Denmark cannot be described in detail here. This article presents the broad picture of important developments within and across the three Danish universities that have study of religion departments. Although the early histories are briefly touched upon, the focus will be on the past 50 years, from about 1960 until 2014, thus roughly the same period that Temenos has been in existence.

Hvorfor, hvorfra (og hvornår) kom religion?

Engelsk summary: “Why, Wherefrom (and When) Did Religion Appear?” This article presents my reflections on the evolution of religion from the perspective of the cognitive science of religion and the neurobiology of religion. Two important features of the brain were crucial to our evolution, i.e. the expansion of the emotional and subcortical areas on the one hand and the cortex on the other. The former was essential to the development of viable social systems and the latter to the development of stone tool technologies and material culture. Furthermore, the growth of the brain was apparently due to the growing complexity of human social structures that culture brought with it. A key feature of the brain is that it is incomplete in human infants and is first fully matured after two decades of social and cultural life: the unfinished animal that becomes completed through a particular culture. Looking closer at the neuropsychological evidence of our brains and behavior, I have identified four key human features, namely, a finely honed social cognition, a drive to communicate and cooperate, a self-deceptive brain and a superstitious brain prone to unusual mental and/or emotional experiences. These traits, I argue, are prerequisites for religious behavior. In looking through the archaeological records, there is good reason to look beyond our species into the deep hominin past. A likely candidate that seems to have evinced proto-religious behavior is Homo heidelbergensis (between 600,000 and 400,000 years ago).Dansk Resumé: I denne artikel præsenterer jeg med udgangspunkt i den kognitive og den neurobiologiske religionsvidenskab mine refleksioner over religionens evolution. To aspekter af hjernen er afgørende for vores evolution. Den ene er udvidelsen af de emotionelle og indre dele af hjernen og den anden er udvidelsen af hjernebarken. Førstnævnte var en nødvendig forudsætning for udviklingen af levedygtige social systemer og sidstnævnte for udviklingen af stenredskaber og anden materiel kultur. Hertil kommer at hjernens udvikling hang kausalt sammen med den voksende social kompleksitet og den kulturelle udvikling, som denne kompleksitet førte med sig. Hjernen har den særlige egenskab, at den ikke er fuldt udviklet ved fødslen og først er “moden” efter to årtiers sociale og kulturelle liv, hvor også hjerneskallen først er vokset endelig sammen (for kvinder 18 år for mænd 21 år). Således bliver det ufærdige dyr færdiggjort inden for en specifik kultur. Når man ser på de seneste landvindinger inden for neuropsykologien, er der fire kendetegn, som jeg mener, er konstituerende for mennesket. Disse er: en finudviklet social kognition, en kommunikations- og samarbejdsdrift, en bedragerisk hjerne samt en overtroisk hjerne med tendens til ualmindelige mentale og/eller emotionelle oplevelser. Disse egenskaber er en nødvendig forudsætning for religiøst adfærd. Når man ser på de arkæologiske vidnesbyrd i jagten på det religiøse menneske, skal man gå betydeligt længere tilbage end Homo sapiens, ja, man skal langt tilbage i homininlinjen. De første proto-religiøse træk synes at komme til syne med Homo heidelbergensis (mellem 600.000 og 400.000 år siden)

Cognitive Scence and the Study of Religion

Den mest afgørende udvikling i det akademiske studium af religion de seneste 20 år er kognitionsvidenskaberne. Vigtige teorier og hypoteser er 'the Naturalness of Religion Hypothesis', 'Religious Modes Hypothesis' og adaptationistiske tilgang

Om marionetdukker og andre sælsomme ting

Denne artikel bygger på en hypotese om, at religiøse ritualer og andres sociale adfærd påvirker vore kropslige og nervesystemer. Især ritualer og farverige ceremonier kan føre til samklang/samstemmighed (‘attunement’) med gruppen og til at opnå bestemte følelsesmæssige og mentale tilstande (opstemthed, meningsfuldhed, frygt eller angst). De manipulerer vore somatiske og mentale tilstande som derved giver andre adgang til vore indre verdener. Disse iagttagelser minder meget om Émile Durkheims ideer om socialitet, effervescens og elektricitet. Der er i dag mange beviser inden for både socialkognitiv neurovidenskab, neurosociologi og socialpsykologi om interaktionen mellem vores nervesystem, hjerne, kroppen, sanserne, neurokemien, sociale sammenhænge og kulturen at vi nu kan fastslå at Durkheim var langt forud for sin tid. Gennem en analyse af to eksempler fra hopi-indianernes marionetdukke-ceremonier forsøges demonstreret at Durkheim havde ret.The hypothesis of this article is that religious rituals and other people’s social behavior influence our body and nervous system. Especially rituals and colorful ceremonies can result in attunement with the group and in attaining certain emotional and mental states (excitement, meaningfulness, fear or anxiety). They manipulate quite simply our somatic and mental states and thus allow others access to our inner worlds. These insights closely resemble Émile Durkheim’s ideas about sociality, effervescence and electricity. Today there is enough evidence in social cognitive neuroscience, neurosociology and social psychology on the interactions between our nervous system, brain, body, senses, neurochemistry, social contexts and culture to show that Durkheim was far ahead of his time. Through an analysis of two examples for the Hopi Indian marionet puppet ceremonies, I will demonstrate that Durkheim was right

Rekonstruktion af Hopi-indianernes religion, kultur og mentalitet

Mange antropologiske, litteraturvidenskabelige og religionsvidenskabelige indianerstudier hjemsøges af primitivisme-romantik, og megen postmoderne og postkolonial litteratur svækkes af religiøse og etniske dagsordener, trods al berettiget fag- og samfundskritik. Jeg appellerer derfor til en ‘no nonsense’ tilgang til religion, en tilgang som jeg sammenfatter i begrebet etno-hermeneutik. Bidraget dokumenterer min egen vandring fra religionshistorisk kulturrelativist til samfundskritiker og universalist, sidstnævnte i kraft af erkendelser inden for den kognitive og neurobiologiske forskning. Faget ligger midt i spændingsfeltet mellem kulturrelativistisk partikularisme og almen menneskelig universalisme. Det kan ikke være anderledes, hvis vi skal leve op til et fag, der tager sit genstands oprindelser, former, funktioner, strukturer og betydninger alvorlig

Religion og medier i et religionsvidenskabeligt perspektiv

ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The religion and media field has grown strongly as an academic subject in recent years, especially regarding studies of religion in contemporary mass media, TV, film, internet, social media etc., and in relation to popular culture. Scholars of religion have also begun to pay attention to the important role that media, mediation, and mediatization have played in the history of religions. It is this growing awareness that we wish to examine here. Our focus is not intended to signal the abandonment of interest in contemporary religion, media and popular culture; rather we wish to place this development in the deep and broad perspective of the study of religion. Media, mediation, and the more recent phenomenon of mediatization, are processes that are inseparable from the ways in which religion functions and is passed on from generation to generation. Thus, from a general study of religion perspective, we promote the argument that media and mediation processes are central aspects of how all religions function because all communication, including religious communication, can be seen as mediated. In this article, we reflect on and discuss the roles that media have played in the deep history of religions and continue to play in the present by bringing religion and media studies in conversation with cultural evolution and cognitive perspectives. DANSK RESUMÉ: Religion og medier er blomstret stærkt op som emnefelt i de seneste år, særligt med fokus på religion i samtidens massemedier, tv, film, internet, sociale medier m.m. og i relation til populærkultur. Samtidigt er religionsforskere blevet opmærksomme på at medier og mediering har spillet vigtige roller for religionshistorien og det er dén udvikling vi her vil gribe fat i. Dermed ønsker vi ikke på nogen måde at signalere en opgiven af interessen for religion, medier og populærkultur i samtiden, men snarere at vi ønsker at indsætte denne udvikling i et langt og bredt religionsvidenskabeligt perspektiv. Medier og mediering er uadskilleligt fra hvordan religion fungerer og videreføres fra generation til generation. Derfor anlægger vi det overordnede perspektiv her, at medier og mediering udgør centrale aspekter af hvordan alle religioner fungerer, da al kommunikation, inklusiv religiøs kommunikation, kan anskues som medieret. I denne artikel reflekterer vi over og diskuterer den rolle medier, mediering og medialisering har spillet i religionshistorien og i samtiden bl.a. med inddragelse af kulturevolutionære og kognitive perspektiver

DEN SUNDHEDSSKADELIGE BØN – Om fjernforbøn, spiritualitet og dårlig videnskab

At religion kan være sundhedsskadeligt er velkendt. Men at bøn også kan være det, er noget nyt. Herbert Benson, læge ved Harvard Universitet, har foretaget en storstilet videnskabelig undersøgelse af fjernforbøn på seks forskellige amerikanske sygehuse. Undersøgelsen viser – stik imod Bensons personlige forhåbninger – ikke alene, at fjernforbøn ingen positiv virkning har på hjertepatienter, men også at patienternes viden om, at nogen beder for dem, oven i købet kan være livsfarlig. Efter en kort introduktion til forskningen om religion og sundhed, gennemgår denne artikel tre udvalgte lægevidenskabelige forsøg. Det drejer sig om Krucoffs MANTRA-undersøgelse fra 2001 ved Veterans Administration Medical Center i USA; Leibovicis retroaktive undersøgelse fra 2001 ved Rabin Medical Center i Israel; samt Bensons ovenfor omtalte undersøgelse fra 2006. I dansk litteratur blev disse og andre undersøgelser introduceret i bogen KAN TRO FLYTTE BJERGE? (København 2004) i kapitlet »Moderne fjernforbønsunder søgelser og de spørgsmål de rejser«, som er skrevet af bogens redaktører Christoffer Johansen og Niels Christian Hvidt. Disse tre undersøgelser underkastes i denne artikel en nøgtern kritik og artiklen afsluttes med en diskussion af forsøgenes metodiske, videnskabsteoretiske, religionsvidenskabelige, videnskabsetiske og videnskabsstrategiske problemer

Disparate Ontologies? Revisiting Descola’s Ontological Schema among Northern Societies

Disparate Ontologies? Takes a critical look at Philippe Descola’s four-field anthropological model for ontologies among hunter-gatherer societies. Descola’s model juxtaposes animism, totemism, analogism, and naturalism as reflecting different expressions of interiority and physicality and queries those four ontological concepts as comparative units of analysis. While Descola’s Beyond Nature and Culture (2013) was a ground-breaking exploration of ontological ethnology and anthropological theory, the present work questions whether animism and totemism should be considered as comparable units in cross-cultural anthropological studies. Disparate Ontologies? focuses on the interpretive suitability of the concepts of animism and totemism as comparable variables in comparative analysis by investigating a sample of traditional indigenous societies from the northernmost Northern Hemisphere. The work focuses on ethnographic examples of animism and totemism, as well as cyclical rebirth eschatology and forms of perspectivism in an attempt to provide insights into the similarities and differences of ontological reckonings among diverse peoples across the North