Viewoints: Should sustainable consumption and production be a policy priority for developing countries, and if so, what areas should they focus on?

As the human–resource–environment nexus is one of the serious issues confronting mankind, it is essential for developing countries to put in place proper sustainable consumption and production policies. These countries should focus on fostering a culture of sustainable consumption, enhancing legislation, reforming taxation and implementing recycling economy patterns. More specifically, as globalization merges consumerism with local traditional cultures, such as has been observed in China in recent years, the sustainable consumption culture should be formed and disseminated by education and training beginning in primary schools all the way through to college. Sustainable products and industries that exploit natural resources in an ecologically efficient manner should receive financial and technological support from public policy. Moreover, tax systems need an overhaul through imposition of ecological taxes that fall heavily on energyintensive products and lightly on clean, sustainable products. Local and central governments should reform economy evaluation systems by introducing Green GDP accounting in public administration. Finally, the sustainable production should include recycling economy patterns that change the material flow from the traditional linear mode of natural resource/product/pollutant, to the new loop of natural resource/industrial product/recycled resource

Effect of Sphaerosporella brunnea mycorrhizas on mycorrhization of Quercus ilex × Tuber melanosporum

It is generally accepted that Sphaerosporella brunnea is a significant ectomycorrhizal contaminant in nurseries producing plants mycorrhized with various species of Tuber, and subsequently in truffières after outplanting. At the University of Alcalá, Spain, 397 small plants of Quercus ilex which were mycorrhized with Tuber melanosporum were inadvertently contaminated with S. brunnea, and this contamination was then monitored for 2 years. Sixty percent of the plants were contaminated and had S. brunnea ascomata on the surface of the container on one or several occasions. However, a Spearman test provided no evidence that S. brunnea mycorrhizas affected T. melanosporum mycorrhization whereas other contaminating ectomycorrhizal fungi significantly did. Therefore, it appears that S. brunnea is not detrimental to plants which are well mycorrhized with T. melanosporum

A raster-vector approach to GIS modelling: Natural Quality cartography

The Surveying Department and the Transport Research Centre of the Polytechnic University ofMadrid (TRANSyT) cooperated on a research project where the generation of a Natural Quality map for the Peninsular Spain and Balearic Islands was one of the main outcomes. The main purpose of this cartography is to assist on the development of Environmental Reports for Strategic Environmental Assessments procedures. Some local, regional, national and international organizations have been consulted in order to obtain suitable GIS thematic databases, including the recent Spanish infrastructure of spatial data (IDEE), the European Environmental Agency and the Spanish nature data bank. The methodology begins with integration and normalization processes of data format (ESRI coverage), data accuracy (100 m), projection and datum (Lambert Azimuthal Equal Area – European Terrestrial Reference System 1989) with the aim of homogenising spatial data sets. The generation of this Natural Quality map implies the combination of a significant number of maps, finally 12. This high number of variables resulted in a very complex methodology, which forced researchers to work with raster data instead of vector. Raster combination of data has proved to be an efficient way of simulating a vector approach for a high number of datasets. This resulted in a raster map which attribute data was a vector comprising information from 12 environmental variables. Finally, a synthetic map was yielded through reclassification of the vector previously obtained. This map was assessed for consistency using various protected areas. The developed methodology, based on the used of GIS, has demonstrated the viability of implementation and convenience for future analysis

Cuantificación y evolución de los servicios ambientales dentro de la cuenca del río Reventazón, relación con el manejo y variables socioeconómicas

La cuenca del río Reventazón es de gran importancia en Costa Rica por la producción de diferentes servicios ambientales (SA), siendo los más importantes los de regulación (agua y carbono), soporte (biodiversidad) y provisión (alimento). La presente investigación trata de cuantificar estos servicios y su evolución a través de técnicas de cloud computing utilizando la reciente tecnología disponible en Google Earth Engine. Nuestra investigación analiza la relación entre el tipo de manejo de las fincas y sus efectos sobre los servicios ambientales (SA). Analiza los pagos por servicios ambientales (PSA) según tipo de manejo y hace propuestas para mejorar la eficiencia de los PSA. Se estudiaron dos zonas. La primera es la zona agrícola del Volcán Irazú-Turrialba. Su paisaje forestal fue transformado en agropecuario. Presenta condiciones óptimas para la agricultura-ganadería (temperaturas suaves, insolación. Problemas medioambientales incluyen la pérdida de biodiversidad, erosión, exceso de agroquímicos, contaminación de ríos y sobreuso de riego. Se observa muy poco impacto del programa de PSA. El ingreso principal se obtiene de la explotación de los recursos agropecuarios La segunda zona es la zona boscosa de Orosi-Pejibaye. El paisaje forestal predomina con plantaciones de caña, banano, café y agricultura. Las condiciones no son tan óptimas para la agricultura (Exceso de lluvia y nubosidad). Los problemas medioambientales son menos intensos que en la primera zona: mayor biodiversidad, menos erosión, menor uso de agroquímicos, menor contaminación de ríos y alta producción de agua,mayor impacto del programa de PSA. Existe un ingreso alternativo a la agricultura que procede de la explotación de recursos paisajísticos en el turismo. Se realizaron 80 entrevistas a propietarios de fincas y a 15 expertos o informantes clave. Las principales variables estudiadas en las fincas son las características socioeconómicas de los propietarios, historia, principales actividades, conocimiento o participación en Programas de PSA, percepciones sobre los servicios ambientales. El trabajo investiga nuevas técnicas en el campo de la monitorización de los SA y la relación que las variables socioeconómicas tienen en los SA. El manejo de las fincas influye en la provisión de los SA de manera espacial y temporal. Factores socioeconómicos como educación o capital social influyen en los SA y en la participación en los programas de PSA. (Texte intégral

Object-based semi-automatic approach for forest structure characterization using lidar data in heterogeneous Pinus sylvestris stands.

In this paper, we present a two-stage approach for characterizing the structure of Pinus sylvestris L. stands in forests of central Spain. The first stage was to delimit forest stands using eCognition and a digital canopy height model (DCHM) derived from lidar data. The polygons were then clustered (k-means algorithm) into forest structure types based on the DCHMdata within forest stands. Hypsographs of each polygon and field data validated the separability of structure types. In the study area, 112 polygons of Pinus sylvestris were segmented and classified into five forest structure types, ranging from high dense forest canopy (850 trees ha_1 and Lorey´ s height of 17.4 m) to scarce tree coverage (60 tree ha_1 and Lorey´ s height of 9.7 m). Our results indicate that the best variables for the definition and characterization of forest structure in these forests are the median and standard deviation (S.D.), both derived from lidar data. In these forest types, lidar median height and standard deviation (S.D.) varied from 15.8 m (S.D. of 5.6 m) to 2.6 m (S.D. of 4.5 m). The present approach could have an operational application in the inventory procedure and forest management plans

Ensayo metodológico de planificación física de una autovía en el Estado Miranda (Venezuela)

La planificación física con base ecológica es fundamental para desarrollar el potencial ambiental y humano de un territorio. Sin embargo, en numerosas áreas de Latinoamérica hay carencias de información territorial que dificultan estos procedimientos. En esta línea, se ha realizado un ensayo metodológico de una planificación física de una autovía hipotética. Para ello se han realizado modelos en SIG (Sistemas de Información Geográfica) de capacidad territorial, riesgos, calidad, fragilidad e impacto ambiental, que se han integrado en una síntesis de planificación territorial. El objetivo final ha sido modelizar un mapa de impedancia o fricción frente a la autovía, para aplicar un algoritmo cost distance / cost path y obtener un trazado de autovía que optimizase la capacidad del territorio y minimizase el impacto ambiental. Se ha consolidado un aprendizaje y una primera transferencia I + D dirigida a la gestión territorial y a la toma de decisiones para diversos países de Latinoamérica

Black Truffle Production, Soils and Mediterranean Woods: Spanish Research Contributions (1962-2006)

The production of mycorrhizal fungi provides higher economic returns than any other forest product in many Mediterranean woods. In these areas, truffles (Tuber spp.) and mushrooms of Boletus and Lactarius genus are the fungi that yield the highest economic benefits. However, there are still evident gaps in the understanding of the truffle's biological cycles, ecology and interactions with host plants and other fungi. In the last 12 years, Spanish research has begun to respond to the requirements of truffle research. Most of Spanish Tuber references deal with the areas of agronomy, forestry, ecology and soil science. In this respect, Spain is one of the main truffle-producing countries in the world and its varied climate, topography and lithology make it a useful geographic area for increasing knowledge on Tuber ecology and truffle production. This work describes the content of Spanish research and its impact on the knowledge of truffles