Mesure de la biomasse et de l'activité bactérienne dans l'eau de distribution

Afin d'étudier la reviviscence bactérienne dans les réseaux de distribution, des méthodes de mesures de la biomasse et de l'activité bactérienne ont été investiguées sur des eaux provenant d'un réseau de distribution. Trois méthodes d'estimation de la biomasse bactérienne ont été comparées : le comptage sur gélose, selon la norme française d'examen bactériologique des eaux de consommation, le dosage de l'ADN contenu dans les particules retenues sur une membrane de porosité de 0.2 µm et le comptage direct au microscope à épifluorescence après coloration des bactéries à l'acridine orange. Les comptages sur gélose, tout comme en milieu aquatique naturel, sous-estiment très largement le nombre de bactéries; ceci semble principalement lié à la présence de bactéries viables mais non cultivables. Le dosage de l'ADN et les comptages directs corrèlent assez bien avec en moyenne un contenu en ADN par bactérie de 4,1 x 10-15 g d'ADN, mais la première méthode semble moins précise. Le comptage direct semble donc la méthode la plus adaptée à l'estimation du nombre total de bactéries dans ce type de milieu.Afin d'estimer l'activité bactérienne, les protocoles expérimentaux de deux méthodes utilisées en écologie bactérienne ont été adaptés aux conditions particulières de l'eau de distribution : l'incorporation de thymidine tritiée dans l'ADN bactérien et l'incorporation de leucine tritiée dans les protéines. La comparaison des deux méthodes sur une série d'échantillons montre une bonne corrélation, avec un rapport molaire entre incorporation de leucine et de thymidine compatible avec les facteurs de conversion des deux méthodes cités dans la littérature et établis pour les milieux aquatiques naturels. Les deux méthodes sont utilisables pour mesurer l'activité bactérienne dans l'eau potable, néanmoins l'incorporation de thymidine est plus aisée à mettre en oeuvre, car elle ne nécessite de travailler qu'à une seule concentration en traceur radioactif.Bacterial regrowth in distribution systems is an important problem for drinking water producers. It is linked to the more and more frequent utilization of low quality surface waters, containing high concentration of organic matter, as raw water, and also to the increase in size and complexity of the distribution networks with high residence time of the water between its production and utilization. At the present time chlorination of treated water, with sometimes rechlorination in the network, is the usual way to limit growth in distribution systems. This solution however presents disadvantages, the major one is the formation of unpleasant organochlorine compounds which are responsible for tastes and odours of water. An alternative strategy consists of developing treatment lines in which biodegradable dissolved organic carbon is removed. It allows through a reduction of the chlorine demand of the water to increase the stability of the chlorine residual of the water. In this context, it is important to get a good knowledge of the factors controlling bacterial development in distribution networks. Up to now, studies on this subject have met some methodological problems linked to the fact that classical bacteriological methods are inadequate to study this kind of systems.In this paper, various methods have been investigated to estimate bacterial biomass and activity in tap water. For this study, the analyzed water samples have been collected in the distribution system of the Parisian suburbs.Three methods have been tested for the determination of bacterial biomass : plate count, measurement of DNA associated with particles with a size higher than 0.2 µm and direct microscopic enumeration. Heterotrophic plate counts have been performed following the French standard and results are expressed in CFU (Colony Forming Units) per ml; the DNA collected after filtration of 500 ml to 1500 ml of water on a 0.2 µm pore size membrane was estimated using a fluorimetric method, as proposed by Mc COY and OLSON (1985); direct enumerations were performed by epifluorescence microscopy after acridine orange staining (AODC) following the procedure proposed by HOBBIE et al. (1977), the comparison between plate counts and AODC (fig. 1) shows the important underestimation of the bacterial numbers when estimated by the CFU (up to 3 orders of magnitude). Such discrepancy has already been observed in natural aquatic ecosystems and is usually explained by the presence of numerous dead cells enumerated by microscopy. Now, it seems that the difference between, plate counts and direct counts may rather be explained by the presence in water of « viable but non culturable » bacteria.A comparison between DNA estimation and direct counts have also been performed. Figure 2 shows the results of this comparison. In spite of the dispersion, the correlation between both methods is significant and the correlation straight line indicates an average DNA content per bacteria of 4.1 x 10-15g DNA in good accordance with the values quoted in the literature. The dispersion of the data around this average can be explained by various ways : the variability of DNA per cell content for the different bacterial strains present in the water samples, the precision of the DNA method which is not higher than 20 % and possible contamination by other organisms than bacteria, as flagellates or ciliates, which are retained on the 0.2 µm pore size membrane.On the basis of these tests, it seems that the direct count by epifluorescence microscopy is the most adapted method for studying the bacterial regrowth in distribution system.The understanding of bacterial dynamics in a distribution system requires measurements of bacterial activity. Various methods have been developed in order to estimate bacterial activity in natural aquatic ecosystems. They are primarily based on the use of radioactive tracers. At the present time, the tritiated thymidine incorporation method, which measures the replication of bacterial DNA, is the most usually used one, but the incorporation of tritiated leucine into proteins, which measures increase in bacterial biomass, seems to be also an interesting method. These methods have been selected, on one hand, because of their specificity towards bacteria and, on the other hand, because of their high sensibility which is required for measurements of bacterial activity in the conditions of drinking water. Up to now, these methods have never been applied to drinking water. We have modified the experimental procedure of both methods : incubation time, radioactive tracers concentrations and volume of the sample have been tested and adapted in order to allow measurement in the conditions of drinking water samples. For thymidine incorporation, the volume of sample, incubated during 20 hours in the presence of 20 nM concentration of 3H-thymidine, was 100 ml. The incorporation was measured in the DNA, using the biochemical procedure proposed by WICKS and ROBARTS (1977), rather than in the total macromolecules. For leucine incorporation, we measured the incorporation rate at four leucine concentrations (2, 27, 52, 77 nM : 2 nM of 3H-leucine + non radioactive leucine) in 25 ml samples and the incubation lasted 3 to 4 hours. The incorporation rate was calculated as the reciprocal of the angular coefficient of the correlation straight fine obtained when the reciprocal of the fraction of leucine incorporated per hour was plotted against leucine concentration (fig. 3). Comparison of both methods on samples of drinking is presented at figure 4, a good linear correlation was found. The equation of the correlation straigth line is :log [Inc.leu (pmol/l.h)] = 0,97 log [Inc.thy (pmol/l.h)] + 1.35(n = 69, r = 0.84)The molar ratio between leucine and thymidine incorporation found in these samples (20 to 25) seems to be in good agreement with the usual conversion factors found for both methods in natural aquatic ecosystems. Bath methods seem to be available to bacterial activity estimations in drinking water, the triatiated thymidine incorporation method which requires working with only one concentration of radioactive tracer seems easier to use

Studies of BDOC and bacterial dynamics in the drinking water distribution system of the Northern Parisian suburbs

La dégradation de la qualité de l'eau dans les réseaux de distribution, due à la reviviscence bactérienne, est, à l'heure actuelle, un souci majeur pour les producteurs d'eau potable. Dans ce contexte, une bonne connaissance des facteurs de contrôle du développement bactérien dans ce type de milieu s'avère nécessaire. Le but de la présente étude est de comprendre le rôle du carbone organique dissous biodégradable (CODB) dans la dynamique bactérienne en réseau de distribution. Cet article présente les résultats d'une étude en cours, lancée à l'initiative du Syndicat des Eaux de l'Ile de France, sur le réseau de distribution de la banlieue nord de Paris alimenté par l'usine de production de Méry-sur-Oise.Le CODB a été déterminé par la méthode de bioessai proposée par SERVAIS et al. (1987, 1989). La biomasse bactérienne libre a été estimée par microscopie à épifluorescence après coloration des bactéries à l'acridine orange, et la méthode d'incorporation de thymidine tritiée utilisée en écologie bactérienne a été adaptée, afin d'estimer la production bactérienne des bactéries présentes dans l'eau du réseau. De plus, la biomasse et l'activité des bactéries fixées ont été étudiées. Une méthode d'estimation de la biomasse, basée sur la mesure de l'activité exoprotéolytique potentielle des bactéries, a été développée. Pour l'estimation de la production bactérienne, la méthode d'incorporation de thymidine tritiée a été adaptée pour être utilisée pour les bactéries fixées.Les résultats obtenus mettent clairement en évidence une décroissance significative de la teneur en CODB dans les canalisations de faible diamètre dans la plupart des situations. Lorsque l'on porte la décroissance du CODB entre l'eau refoulée et l'eau présente dans les canalisations de faible diamètre en fonction du CODB dans l'eau refoulée, une corrélation significative est observée (fig. 1); l'intersection de la droite de corrélation avec l'abscisse indique la présence d'un seuil (environ 0,16 mgC.L-1) en-dessous duquel aucune décroissance de CODB n'est observée. Ce résultat, qui doit encore être confirmé, est important en vue de définir un objectif à atteindre en fin de filière, en terme de teneur en CODB.Dans l'eau refoulée, l'abondance bactérienne est proche de 1 x 104 cellules par mL. Dans le réseau de distribution, elle est toujours supérieure avec des valeurs observées allant jusqu'à 7 x 105 bact.mL-1; elle semble surtout liée à l'absence d'un résiduel de chlore libre (fig. 2). La température et la concentration en CODB dans l'eau refoulée sont aussi déterminantes comme le montre la figure 3 où l'abondance bactérienne dans les canalisations de faibles dia-mètres a été portée en fonction de la température pour deux gammes de concentration en CODB dans l'eau refoulée. Les taux de croissance des bactéries (calculés à .partir des estimations de production bactérienne et de biomasse) sont dans la gamme 0,005 à 0,1 h-1 (fig. 4), en l'absence de chlore libre ce qui correspond à des temps de génération compris entre 7 et 140 heures. La température semble fixer la valeur maximale du taux de croissance, sous ce maximum une large gamme de valeurs est observée traduisant la variabilité des conditions nutritionnelles. Les plus hauts taux de croissance observés dans le réseau sont proches des taux de croissance de bactéries mesurés dans les milieux aquatiques naturels.Les résultats obtenus sur les bactéries fixées montrent une biomasse bactérienne fixée dans la gamme 0,25 à 0,65 µgC.cm-2, ce qui correspond à une abondance de 1 x 107 à 2,6 x 107 bact.cm-2 (tableau 1). Ainsi donc, dans une canalisation de 100mm de diamètre, on peut dire que la biomasse fixée est, en moyenne, approximativement de 50 à 75 fois plus élevée que la biomasse moyenne des bactéiesJibres (2 x 105 bact.mL-1) (tableau 2). Le taux de croissance des bactéries fixées apparaît du même ordre de grandeur que celui des bactéries en suspension. Ceci signifie que dans un réseau de distribution, l'essentiel de la production de biomasse bactérienne s'effectue sur les parois des canalisations, les bactéries en suspension résultant principalement d'un décrochage de bactéries.Un modèle mathématique de la dynamique du CODB et des bactéries dans les réseaux de distribution, incluant les connaissances acquises concernant le contrôle de l'activité bactérienne par la matière organique dissoute, est actuellement développé (fig. 5). Il inclut une représentation mathématique des cinétiques des processus d'adsorption-désorption des bactéries (tableau 4), de fixation des bactéries, d'utilisation de la matière organique biodégradable et de la croissance bactérienne (tableau 3), ainsi que de l'impact du chlore libre sur les bactéries libres et fixées (fig. 6). Bien que préliminaire, il permet de simuler l'évolution longitudinale de la biomasse bactérienne libre et fixée, du CODB et du taux de chlore libre dans le cas simplifié d'une canalisation de diamètre fixé parcourue par un flux d'eau à vitesse constante (fig. 7). Une de ses applications permet de simuler l'impact de la teneur en CODB de l'eau injectée dans le réseau sur les biomasses libres et fixées (fig. 8).The deterioration of water quality in distribution systems due to bacterial regrowth is, at the present time, a major concern of drinking water producers. In this context, a good knowledge of the factors controlling bacterial development is required; the aim of the present study is to understand the rote of biodegradable dissolved organic carbon (BDOC) in the bacterial dynamics of the distribution system.This paper discusses the results obtained in a study carried out in order to assess the dynamics of biodegradable dissolved organic carbon and suspended bacteria in the water distribution system of the Northern Parisian suburbs lad by the Méry-sur-Oise treatment plant.The results show clearly that a significant decrease in BDOC occurs within the smallest pipes, when the BDOC level in the finished water is higher than about 0.20 mgC.L-1. However, no decrease in BDOC is observed when the BDOC in the finished water is lower than 0.16 mgC.L-1. The bacterial abundance in the distribution system is primarily linked to the absence of free chicane. Temperature and BDOC concentration in the finished water are also major controlling factors of bacterial numbers. Bacterial growth rates are in the range 0.005 to 0.1 h-1 in the absence of free chlorine, the highest of these values are in the same range as the growth rates measured for bacteria in natural aquatic ecosystems. Fixed biomass to the inner pipes surface are in the range 0.25 to 0.65 µgC.cm-2 and the average growth rate of fixed bacteria seems to be roughly in the same order of magnitude as the average growth rate of the suspended bacteria.A model of the dynamics of BDOC and bacteria in distribution network, incorporating the knowledge gained from this and previous studies concerning the control of bacterial activity by dissolved organic matter, is presented. It involves a mathematical representation of the kinetics of bacterial adsorption-desorption processes, bacterial attachment, bacterial utilization of biodegradable dissolved organic matter and impact of chlorine on free and fixed bacteria. It allows simulation of the impact of reducing the BDOC in the finished water on processes associated with bacterial regrowth in the distribution network.

Biodegradable dissolved organic carbon removal during biological filtration on granular actived carbon

En production d'eau potable, la nature bactérienne de l'abattement du carbone organique dissous biodégradable (CODB) observé dans les filtres à charbon actif en grains (CAG) a été démontrée. Les performances de fonctionnement de ce type de contacteur biologique ont été principalement étudiées sur pilotes. Dans la présente étude, elles sont vérifiées et transposées en condition d'exploitation sur une usine de production d'eau potable de la. banlieue parisienne. La colonisation bactérienne du CAG a été suivie et montre que l'équilibre biologique est atteint après filtration d'environ 12500m3 d'eau/m3 de CAG. Durant cette phase de colonisation, la biodégradation se substitue progressivement à l'adsorption pour abattre le COD. Après colonisation, l'efficacité des filtres biologiques, exprimée en terme d'abattement de CODB, est fonction du temps de contact quelle que soit la vitesse de filtration (dans la gamme de 2 à 18 m/h). Les résultats de suivis de deux filtres sur deux ans montrent que l'efficacité a été globalement meilleure en 1989 qu'en 1990, cette différence s'explique par les fluctuations plus importantes de CODB dans l'influent en 1989. Un modèle mathématique, établi à partir des équations cinétiques des processus bactériens dans les filtres à CAG (modèle CHABROL), développé sur base d'observations antérieures, permet de simuler correctement les observations faites au cours de la présente étude. Avec la mesure du CODB, le modèle CHABROL constitue un outil très bien adapté pour contrôler les performances des contacteurs biologiques. Ils permettent, entre autre, de définir le temps de contact optimal de l'eau dans le filtre en fonction d'une température et d'une qualité d'eau donnée dans l'influent et d'une qualité d'eau souhaitée dans l'effluent.In drinking water production, filtration on granular activated carton (GAC) is generally used in order to remove by adsorption the dissolved organic matter. Nevertheless, the adsorption capacity of GAC is rapidly saturated and it is so necessary to regenerate the GAC. An interesting alternate has been applied in some treatment plants. It consists to use GAC filtration without regeneration taking benefit of the activity of the microbial community which colonize the GAC particles (RITTMAN and HUCK, 1989). In fact, this biological filtration offers the advantage to specially remove the biodegradable fraction of the dissolved organic carbon (BDOC), which is responsible for the problem of bacterial growth into the distribution networks.The bacterial nature of the BDOC removal achieved by the biological filtration on GAC has been now clearly demonstrated (SERVAIS et al., 1991) and some important results of the functioning of these filters has been obtained in studies conducted on pilots filters (BOUILLOT et al., 1990; SERVAIS et al., 1992). These studies have for example shown that only a very small part of the bacterial biomass produced in the filter is exported with the outflow.In the present study, biological filtration has been investigated in a full scale treatment line at Choisy-le-Roi in the Parisian suburbs and the results compared with those gained on pilot filters.The working conditions of the three GAC filter studied are presented in table 1 and compared with those of pilot filters used in a previous study conducted al Neuilly-sur-Marne (table 2). The microbial colonization has been followed in two of the liners. If lasted roughly 3 months to reach biological equilibration, it corresponds to a water volume filtrated of 12 500 m3 per m3 of GAC. Efficiency of the removal during this period is presented in figure 2. Progressively, biological processes take turn with adsorption (fig. 1).As already demonstrated by SERVAIS et al. (1992), the efficiency of biological filtration, calculated in percentage of BDOC removal, increases with increasing contact time whatever the filtration velocity could be in the range 2 m/h to 18 m/h (fig. 3). However, the percentage of BDOC, at similar temperature, is higher in the GAC filters at Choisy-le-Roi than at Neuilly-sur-Marne. The fixed bacterial biomass is also higher at Choisy-le-Roi (average 7.5 µgC/cm3) than at Neuilly-sur-Marne (average 2 µC/cm3).Following during two years the functioning of the n° 56 and 38 filters (tables 3, 4 and fig. 5, 7), it seems that the global efficiency of filtration is better in 1990 than in 1989. This can be linked to the greater fluctuations in BDOC in the influent water in 1989 than in 1990, as shown on figure 8. Fluctuations in the quality of the influent water requires a period to reach the equilibrium during which the effluent is charchacterized by a lower quality (fig. 8). This period is longer at low temperature. The mathematical modal based on the kinetics of the basic microbiological processes involved in biological filtration (the CHABROL model) has been previously developed (BILLEN et al., 1992) in order la simulate the performances of the filtration. It can be used to simulate the vertical profiles of BDOC and bacterial biomass in the filters of the Choisy-le-Roi treatment plant, with modifying only one parameter in the model, the average bacterial mortality “kd” (fig. 4). BDOC decreases versus empty bed contact time (EBCT) calculated by the modal are presented on figure 6 for the Choisy-le-Roi and Neuilly-sur-Marne treatment plants and for two temperatures.From a management point of view, the minimum BDOC is reached for contact time between 15 and 20 minutes at Neuilly-sur-Marne, while at Choisy-le-Roi it is rather between 10 and 15 minutes.In conclusion, BDOC measurements and CHABROL modal constitute powerful tools for management and design of biological GAC filters

Phytoplankton dynamics from the Cambrian Explosion to the onset of the Great Ordovician Biodiversification Event: a review of Cambrian acritarch diversity

Most early Palaeozoic acritarchs are thought to represent a part of the marine phytoplankton and so constituted a significant element at the base of the marine trophic chain during the ‘Cambrian Explosion’ and the subsequent ‘Great Ordovician Biodiversification Event.’ Cambrian acritarch occurrences have been recorded in a great number of studies. In this paper, published data on Cambrian acritarchs are assembled in order to reconstruct taxonomic diversity trends that can be compared with the biodiversity of marine invertebrates. We compile a database and calculate various diversity indices at global and regional (i.e. Gondwana or Baltica) scales. The stratigraphic bins applied are at the level of the ten Cambrian stages, or of fourteen commonly used biozones in a somewhat higher resolved scheme. Our results show marked differences between palaeogeographical regions. They also indicate limitations of the data and a potential sampling bias, as the taxonomic diversity indices of species are significantly correlated with the number of studies per stratigraphic bin. The total and normalized diversities of genera are not affected in the same way. The normalized genus diversity curves show a slow but irregular rise over the course of the Cambrian. These also are the least biased. A radiation of species and to a lesser extent of genera in the ‘lower’ Cambrian Series 2 appears to mirror the ‘Cambrian Explosion’ of metazoans. This radiation, not evident on Gondwana, is followed by a prominent low in species diversity in the upper Series 3 and lower Furongian. Highest diversities are reached globally, and on both Baltica and Gondwana, in the uppermost Cambrian Stage 10, more precisely in the Peltura trilobite Zone, preceding a substantial phase of acritarch species extinction below and at the Cambrian/Ordovician boundary. Nearly all the genera present in Stage 10 survived into the Ordovician. The forms that emerged during the Cambrian therefore became the foundation for the more rapid radiation of acritarchs during the ‘Great Ordovician Biodiversification Event’

The palaeobiogeographical spread of the acritarch Veryhachium in the Early and Middle Ordovician and its impact on biostratigraphical applications

The genus Veryhachium Deunff, 1954, is one of the most frequently documented acritarch genera, being recorded from the Early Ordovician to the Neogene. Detailed investigations show that Veryhachium species first appeared near the South Pole in the earliest part of the Tremadocian (Early Ordovician). The genus was present at high palaeolatitudes (generally>60° S) on the Gondwanan margin during the Tremadocian before spreading to lower palaeolatitudes on the Gondwanan margin and other palaeocontinents (Avalonia and Baltica) during the Floian. It became cosmopolitan in the Middle and Late Ordovician. Although useful for distinguishing Ordovician from Cambrian strata, the diachronous first appearance data of Veryhachium morphotypes mean that they should be used with caution for long-distance correlation

Prognostic factors and treatment-effect modifiers in spinal muscular atrophy

Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is a rare, progressive neuromuscular disease characterized by loss of motor neurons and muscle atrophy. Untreated infants with Type 1 SMA do not achieve major motor milestones, and death from respiratory failure typically occurs before 2 years. Individuals with Types 2 and 3 SMA exhibit milder phenotypes and have better functional and survival outcomes. Herein, a systematic literature review was conducted to identify factors that influence the prognosis of Types 1, 2 and 3 SMA. In untreated infants with Type 1 SMA, absence of symptoms at birth, a later symptom onset and a higher survival of motor neuron 2 (SMN2) copy number are all associated with increased survival. Disease duration, age at treatment initiation and, to a lesser extent, baseline function were identified as potential treatment-modifying factors for survival, emphasizing that early treatment with disease-modifying therapies (DMT) is essential in Type 1 SMA. In patients with Types 2 and 3 SMA, factors considered prognostic of changes in motor function were SMN2 copy number, age and ambulatory status. Individuals aged 6-15 years were particularly vulnerable to developing complications (scoliosis and progressive joint contractures) which negatively influence functional outcomes and may also affect the therapeutic response in patients. Age at the time of treatment initiation emerged as a treatment-effect modifier on the outcome of DMTs. Factors identified in this review should be considered prior to designing or analyzing studies in an SMA population, conducting population matching or summarizing results from different studies on the treatments for SMA

Cholesterol metabolism is a potential therapeutic target in Duchenne muscular dystrophy

Background: Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is a lethal muscle disease detected in approximately 1:5000 male births. DMD is caused by mutations in the DMD gene, encoding a critical protein that links the cytoskeleton and the extracellular matrix in skeletal and cardiac muscles. The primary consequence of the disrupted link between the extracellular matrix and the myofibre actin cytoskeleton is thought to involve sarcolemma destabilization, perturbation of Ca homeostasis, activation of proteases, mitochondrial damage, and tissue degeneration. A recently emphasized secondary aspect of the dystrophic process is a progressive metabolic change of the dystrophic tissue; however, the mechanism and nature of the metabolic dysregulation are yet poorly understood. In this study, we characterized a molecular mechanism of metabolic perturbation in DMD. Methods: We sequenced plasma miRNA in a DMD cohort, comprising 54 DMD patients treated or not by glucocorticoid, compared with 27 healthy controls, in three groups of the ages of 4–8, 8–12, and 12–20 years. We developed an original approach for the biological interpretation of miRNA dysregulation and produced a novel hypothesis concerning metabolic perturbation in DMD. We used the mdx mouse model for DMD for the investigation of this hypothesis. Results: We identified 96 dysregulated miRNAs (adjusted P-value <0.1), of which 74 were up-regulated and 22 were down-regulated in DMD. We confirmed the dysregulation in DMD of Dystro-miRs, Cardio-miRs, and a large number of the DLK1-DIO3 miRNAs. We also identified numerous dysregulated miRNAs yet unreported in DMD. Bioinformatics analysis of both target and host genes for dysregulated miRNAs predicted that lipid metabolism might be a critical metabolic perturbation in DMD. Investigation of skeletal muscles of the mdx mouse uncovered dysregulation of transcription factors of cholesterol and fatty acid metabolism (SREBP-1 and SREBP-2), perturbation of the mevalonate pathway, and the accumulation of cholesterol in the dystrophic muscles. Elevated cholesterol level was also found in muscle biopsies of DMD patients. Treatment of mdx mice with Simvastatin, a cholesterol-reducing agent, normalized these perturbations and partially restored the dystrophic parameters. Conclusions: This investigation supports that cholesterol metabolism and the mevalonate pathway are potential therapeutic targets in DMD. 2

Spectrometric Monitoring of Atmospheric Carbon Tetrafluoride (CF4) Above the Jungfraujoch Station Since 1989: Evidence of Continued Increase But at a Slowing Rate

The long-term evolution of the vertical column abundance of carbon tetrafluoride (CF4) above the high-altitude Jungfraujoch station (Swiss Alps, 46.5 ° N, 8.0 ° E, 3580 ma.s.l.) has been derived from the spectrometric analysis of Fourier transform infrared solar spectra recorded at that site between 1989 and 2012. The investigation is based on a multi-microwindow approach, two encompassing pairs of absorption lines belonging to the R-branch of the strong ν3 band of CF4 centered at 1283 cm-1, and two additional ones to optimally account for weak but overlapping HNO3 interferences. The analysis reveals a steady accumulation of the very long-lived CF4 above the Jungfraujoch at mean rates of (1.38 ± 0.11) x 1013 molec cm-2 yr-1 from 1989 to 1997, and (0.98 +/- 0.02) x 1013 molec cm-2 yr-1 from 1998 to 2012, which correspond to linear growth rates of 1.71 ± 0.14 and 1.04 ± 0.02% yr-1 respectively referenced to 1989 and 1998. Related global CF4 anthropogenic emissions required to sustain these mean increases correspond to 15.8 ±1.3 and 11.1 ± 0.2 Gg yr-1 over the above specified time intervals. Findings reported here are compared and discussed with respect to relevant northern mid-latitude results obtained remotely from space and balloons as well as in situ at the ground, including new gas chromatography mass spectrometry measurements performed at the Jungfraujoch since 2010

Reconstitution of adaptive immunity after umbilical cord blood transplantation and clinical implication regarding risk of infections

In comparison with allogeneic stem cell transplantation (alloHSCT) with other stem cell sources, umbilical cord blood transplantation (UCBT) was traditionally associated with increased risk of infections, particularly during the first 3 months after transplantation. Longitudinal studies of immune monitoring reported peculiar patterns of T- and B-cell recovery in the peripheral blood of UCB recipients during the first months post-transplantation. Overall, current data suggest delayed reconstitution of naive and memory CD4+ and CD8+ T-cell pools after UCBT. This is particularly true for adult recipients and for patients who received in vivo T-cell depleting approaches before the transplantation. Such delayed T-cell recovery may increase susceptibility of UCB recipients for developing opportunistic infections and viral reactivations. Regarding B-cell recovery, UCBT was associated with accelerated B-lymphopoiesis. Recent studies also reported evidence for faster functional memory B-cell recovery in UCB recipients. In this article, we briefly review T- and B-cell reconstitution after alloHSCT, with emphasis on peculiarities observed after UCBT. We further put these data in lines with risks of infections after UCBT

The emergence of international food safety standards and guidelines: understanding the current landscape through a historical approach

Following the Second World War, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the World Health Organization (WHO) teamed up to construct an International Codex Alimentarius (or 'food code') which emerged in 1963. The Codex Committee on Food Hygiene (CCFH) was charged with the task of developing microbial hygiene standards, although it found itself embroiled in debate with the WHO over the nature these standards should take. The WHO was increasingly relying upon the input of biometricians and especially the International Commission on Microbial Specifications for Foods (ICMSF) which had developed statistical sampling plans for determining the microbial counts in the final end products. The CCFH, however, was initially more focused on a qualitative approach which looked at the entire food production system and developed codes of practice as well as more descriptive end-product specifications which the WHO argued were 'not scientifically correct'. Drawing upon historical archival material (correspondence and reports) from the WHO and FAO, this article examines this debate over microbial hygiene standards and suggests that there are many lessons from history which could shed light upon current debates and efforts in international food safety management systems and approaches