A systematic literature review of historic garden management and its economic aspects

Historic gardens are important parts of humanity’s built heritage within the designed landscape, providing many environmental, economic and socio‐cultural benefits. Management is a key part of their conservation, perhaps the most difficult because it is costly, must be continual, and requires a skilled workforce. This systematic review looks at the literature addressing historic garden management, with special attention regarding the social, economic and environmental aspects of sustainability. Academic studies on this subject come from many different disciplines, making it both stimulating and fragmented. It is now time to consolidate these interdisciplinary efforts into a clear vision, including a framework of key themes and research methods so as to better coordinate efforts and make the information and innovation generated more accessible to the garden managers “in the trenches”. With this aim, reviewed studies are classified according to 10 criteria: supply or demand orientation; management phase involved; primary sustainability processes addressed; geographic criteria; number of sites covered; policy documents referred to; kind of data collected; study methods employed; possibility of bias specifically regarding historic gardens; garden use. An analysis of these criteria shows that historic garden management literature focuses on describing the gardens themselves, with few studies interested in the people supporting them. Future research should follow recent policy documents’ lead and pay more attention to community value and involvement

The contribution of geographical certification programs to farm income and rural economies: The case of Pecorino Siciliano PDO

This study attempts to measure the capacity of the EU geographical certification scheme to positively influence the price of certified products and the incomes of their producers. A comparison of the economic results of two cheese-producing dairy farm enterprises with different business strategies and locations within the Sicilian hinterlands is performed in order to determine the transformation value of each dairy’s sheep milk into pecorino cheese (with and without the Protected Designation of Origin, or PDO, certification) and the related joint products (ricotta). The economic convenience of the total transformation of sheep milk into Pecorino Siciliano PDO and ricotta is also appraised. The results suggest that producing and commercializing Pecorino Siciliano PDO is a promising strategy for differentiating and promoting dairy farm products and improving the financial performance of producers, with foreseeable positive repercussions in the socioeconomically less favored rural areas where they are located

Lunar and Asteroid Composition Using a Remote Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometer

Laboratory experiments simulating solar wind sputtering of lunar surface materials have shown that solar wind protons sputter secondary ions in sufficient numbers to be measured from low-altitude lunar orbit. Secondary ions of Na, Mg, Al, Si, K, Ca, Mn, Ti, and Fe have been observed sputtered from sample simulants of mare and highland soils. While solar wind ions are hundreds of times less efficient than those used in standard secondary ion mass spectrometry, secondary ion fluxes expected at the Moon under normal solar wind conditions range from approximately 10 to greater than 10(exp 4) ions cm(sup -2)s(sup -1), depending on species. These secondary ion fluxes depend both on concentration in the soil and on probability of ionization; yields of easily ionized elements such as K and Na are relatively much greater than those for the more electronegative elements and compounds. Once these ions leave the surface, they are subject to acceleration by local electric and magnetic fields. For typical solar wind conditions, secondary ions can be accelerated to an orbital observing location. The same is true for atmospheric atoms and molecules that are photoionized by solar EUV. The instrument to detect, identify, and map secondary ions sputtered from the lunar surface and photoions arising from the tenuous atmosphere is discussed

Quantifying the relative contributions of substorm injections and chorus waves to the rapid outward extension of electron radiation belt

Abstract We study the rapid outward extension of the electron radiation belt on a timescale of several hours during three events observed by Radiation Belt Storm Probes and Time History of Events and Macroscale Interactions during Substorms satellites and particularly quantify the contributions of substorm injections and chorus waves to the electron flux enhancement near the outer boundary of radiation belt. A comprehensive analysis including both observations and simulations is performed for the first event on 26 May 2013. The outer boundary of electron radiation belt moved from L = 5.5 to L \u3e 6.07 over about 6 h, with up to 4 orders of magnitude enhancement in the 30 keV to 5 MeV electron fluxes at L = 6. The observations show that the substorm injection can cause 100% and 20% of the total subrelativistic (∼0.1 MeV) and relativistic (2-5 MeV) electron flux enhancements within a few minutes. The data-driven simulation supports that the strong chorus waves can yield 60%-80% of the total energetic (0.2-5.0 MeV) electron flux enhancement within about 6 h. Some simple analyses are further given for the other two events on 2 and 29 June 2013, in which the contributions of substorm injections and chorus waves are shown to be qualitatively comparable to those for the first event. These results clearly illustrate the respective importance of substorm injections and chorus waves for the evolution of radiation belt electrons at different energies on a relatively short timescale. Key Points Rapid outward extension of electron radiation belt observed by RBSP and THEMIS A two-step scenario to explain the rapid flux enchantment Differentiating between contributions of substorm injections and chorus waves

Excitation of EMIC waves detected by the Van Allen Probes on 28 April 2013

Abstract We report the wave observations, associated plasma measurements, and linear theory testing of electromagnetic ion cyclotron (EMIC) wave events observed by the Van Allen Probes on 28 April 2013. The wave events are detected in their generation regions as three individual events in two consecutive orbits of Van Allen Probe-A, while the other spacecraft, B, does not detect any significant EMIC wave activity during this period. Three overlapping H+ populations are observed around the plasmapause when the waves are excited. The difference between the observational EMIC wave growth parameter (Eh) and the theoretical EMIC instability parameter (Sh) is significantly raised, on average, to 0.10 ± 0.01, 0.15 ± 0.02, and 0.07 ± 0.02 during the three wave events, respectively. On Van Allen Probe-B, this difference never exceeds 0. Compared to linear theory (Eh\u3eSh), the waves are only excited for elevated thresholds

Excitation of nightside magnetosonic waves observedby Van Allen Probes

Abstract During the recovery phase of the geomagnetic storm on 30-31 March 2013, Van Allen Probe A detected enhanced magnetosonic (MS) waves in a broad range of L = 1.8-4.7 and magnetic local time (MLT) = 17-22 h, with a frequency range ∼10-100 Hz. In the meanwhile, distinct proton ring distributions with peaks at energies of ∼10 keV, were also observed in L = 3.2-4.6 and L = 5.0-5.6. Using a subtracted bi-Maxwellian distribution to model the observed proton ring distribution, we perform three-dimensional ray tracing to investigate the instability, propagation, and spatial distribution of MS waves. Numerical results show that nightside MS waves are produced by proton ring distribution and grow rapidly from the source location L = 5.6 to the location L = 5.0 but remain nearly stable at locations L \u3c 5.0. Moreover, waves launched toward lower L shells with different initial azimuthal angles propagate across different MLT regions with divergent paths at first, then gradually turn back toward higher L shells and propagate across different MLT regions with convergent paths. The current results further reveal that MS waves are generated by a ring distribution of ∼10 keV proton and proton ring in one region can contribute to the MS wave power in another region. Key Points: Correlated Van Allen Probe data of MS wave and proton ringGrowth rates are peaked at the harmonics of the proton gyrofrequencyMS waves propagate inward divergently and outward convergently

Study of EMIC wave excitation using direct ion measurements

With data from Van Allen Probes, we investigate electromagnetic ion cyclotron (EMIC) wave excitation using simultaneously observed ion distributions. Strong He band waves occurred while the spacecraft was moving through an enhanced density region. We extract from helium, oxygen, proton, and electron mass spectrometer measurement the velocity distributions of warm heavy ions as well as anisotropic energetic protons that drive wave growth through the ion cyclotron instability. Fitting the measured ion fluxes to multiple sinm-type distribution functions, we find that the observed ions make up about 15% of the total ions, but about 85% of them are still missing. By making legitimate estimates of the unseen cold (below ∼2 eV) ion composition from cutoff frequencies suggested by the observed wave spectrum, a series of linear instability analyses and hybrid simulations are carried out. The simulated waves generally vary as predicted by linear theory. They are more sensitive to the cold O+ concentration than the cold He+ concentration. Increasing the cold O+ concentration weakens the He band waves but enhances the O band waves. Finally, the exact cold ion composition is suggested to be in a range when the simulated wave spectrum best matches the observed one