117,792 research outputs found
Book Review: Religion in a New Key
A review of M. Darrol Bryant\u27s Religion in a New Key
How to read probability distributions as statements about process
Probability distributions can be read as simple expressions of information.
Each continuous probability distribution describes how information changes with
magnitude. Once one learns to read a probability distribution as a measurement
scale of information, opportunities arise to understand the processes that
generate the commonly observed patterns. Probability expressions may be parsed
into four components: the dissipation of all information, except the
preservation of average values, taken over the measurement scale that relates
changes in observed values to changes in information, and the transformation
from the underlying scale on which information dissipates to alternative scales
on which probability pattern may be expressed. Information invariances set the
commonly observed measurement scales and the relations between them. In
particular, a measurement scale for information is defined by its invariance to
specific transformations of underlying values into measurable outputs.
Essentially all common distributions can be understood within this simple
framework of information invariance and measurement scale.Comment: v2: added table of contents, adjusted section numbers v3: minor
editing, updated referenc
Knowledge, Belief, and Assertion
The traditional answer to the question what it is to make an\ud
assertion appeals to belief (see Grice 1989 and Searle\ud
1969). To assert something, so the analysis goes, is to\ud
express a belief by way of uttering a sentence. Timothy\ud
Williamson claims (1) that on the traditional analysis\ud
assertion is constitutively governed by the truth rule (242):1\ud
One must: assert p only if p is true.\ud
He argues (2) that the traditional analysis is mistaken, and\ud
(3) that assertion is constitutively governed by the\ud
knowledge rule instead (243):\ud
One must: assert p only if one knows p.\ud
I will argue that all three of these claims are false
Microbial metabolism: optimal control of uptake versus synthesis
Microbes require several complex organic molecules for growth. A species may
obtain a required factor by taking up molecules released by other species or by
synthesizing the molecule. The patterns of uptake and synthesis set a flow of
resources through the multiple species that create a microbial community. This
article analyzes a simple mathematical model of the tradeoff between uptake and
synthesis. Key factors include the influx rate from external sources relative
to the outflux rate, the rate of internal decay within cells, and the cost of
synthesis. Aspects of demography also matter, such as cellular birth and death
rates, the expected time course of a local resource flow, and the associated
lifespan of the local population. Spatial patterns of genetic variability and
differentiation between populations may also strongly influence the evolution
of metabolic regulatory controls of individual species and thus the structuring
of microbial communities. The widespread use of optimality approaches in recent
work on microbial metabolism has ignored demography and genetic structure
Receptor uptake arrays for vitamin B12, siderophores and glycans shape bacterial communities
Molecular variants of vitamin B12, siderophores and glycans occur. To take up
variant forms, bacteria may express an array of receptors. The gut microbe
Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron has three different receptors to take up variants
of vitamin B12 and 88 receptors to take up various glycans. The design of
receptor arrays reflects key processes that shape cellular evolution.
Competition may focus each species on a subset of the available nutrient
diversity. Some gut bacteria can take up only a narrow range of carbohydrates,
whereas species such as B.~thetaiotaomicron can digest many different complex
glycans. Comparison of different nutrients, habitats, and genomes provide
opportunity to test hypotheses about the breadth of receptor arrays. Another
important process concerns fluctuations in nutrient availability. Such
fluctuations enhance the value of cellular sensors, which gain information
about environmental availability and adjust receptor deployment. Bacteria often
adjust receptor expression in response to fluctuations of particular
carbohydrate food sources. Some species may adjust expression of uptake
receptors for specific siderophores. How do cells use sensor information to
control the response to fluctuations? That question about regulatory wiring
relates to problems that arise in control theory and artificial intelligence.
Control theory clarifies how to analyze environmental fluctuations in relation
to the design of sensors and response systems. Recent advances in deep learning
studies of artificial intelligence focus on the architecture of regulatory
wiring and the ways in which complex control networks represent and classify
environmental states. I emphasize the similar design problems that arise in
cellular evolution, control theory, and artificial intelligence. I connect
those broad concepts to testable hypotheses for bacterial uptake of B12,
siderophores and glycans.Comment: Added many new references, edited throughou
Trusting (and Verifying) Online Intermediaries\u27 Policing
All is not well in the land of online self-regulation. However competently internet intermediaries police their sites, nagging questions will remain about their fairness and objectivity in doing so. Is Comcast blocking BitTorrent to stop infringement, to manage traffic, or to decrease access to content that competes with its own for viewers? How much digital due process does Google need to give a site it accuses of harboring malware? If Facebook censors a video of war carnage, is that a token of respect for the wounded or one more reflexive effort of a major company to ingratiate itself with the Washington establishment?
Questions like these will persist, and erode the legitimacy of intermediary self-policing, as long as key operations of leading companies are shrouded in secrecy. Administrators must develop an institutional competence for continually monitoring rapidly-changing business practices. A trusted advisory council charged with assisting the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) and Federal Communications Commission (FCC) could help courts and agencies adjudicate controversies concerning intermediary practices. An Internet Intermediary Regulatory Council (IIRC) would spur the development of expertise necessary to understand whether companies’ controversial decisions are socially responsible or purely self-interested. Monitoring is a prerequisite for assuring a level playing field online
Platform Neutrality: Enhancing Freedom of Expression in Spheres of Private Power
AbstractTroubling patterns of suppressed speech have emerged on the corporate internet. A large platform may marginalize (or entirely block) potential connections between audiences and speakers. Consumer protection concerns arise, for platforms may be marketing themselves as open, comprehensive, and unbiased, when they are in fact closed, partial, and self-serving. Responding to protests, the accused platform either asserts a right to craft the information environment it desires, or abjures responsibility, claiming to merely reflect the desires and preferences of its user base. Such responses betray an opportunistic commercialism at odds with the platforms’ touted social missions. Large platforms should be developing (and holding themselves to) more ambitious standards for promoting expression online, rather than warring against privacy, competition, and consumer protection laws. These regulations enable a more vibrant public sphere. They also defuse the twin specters of monopolization and total surveillance, which are grave threats to freedom of expression.</jats:p
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