Ο Ρόλος των Περιφερειακών Οργανισμών στη Διατήρηση της Διεθνούς Ειρήνης και Ασφάλειας: Η Περίπτωση της ECOWAS

Υπέρτατο αγαθό για τις σύγχρονες δημοκρατικές πολιτείες αποτελεί η ειρήνη. Έχοντας ο κόσμος γνωρίσει δύο (2) παγκόσμιες πολεμικές συρράξεις κατά τη διάρκεια του περασμένου αιώνα, οι οποίες άφησαν πίσω τους πάνω από 100 εκατομμύρια θύματα, πολλαπλάσιους τραυματίες πολέμου, μεταναστεύσαντες πληθυσμούς και τη διεθνή οικονομία πλήρως αποσαθρωμένη, ήταν σχεδόν αναμενόμενο, ότι μετά το πέρας τους θα επιζητείτο η αποκατάσταση και η διασφάλιση της παγκόσμιας ειρήνης. Για τον λόγο αυτό, άλλωστε, λίγες εβδομάδες ύστερα από τη λήξη του Β’ Παγκοσμίου Πολέμου το 1945, οι ηγέτες 50 και πλέον κρατών συμφώνησαν στη μετεξέλιξη της ιδρυθείσας το 1919 «Κοινωνίας των Εθνών» (Κ.τ.Ε) στον «Οργανισμό Ηνωμένων Εθνών» (Ο.Η.Ε.), έναν διεθνή, δηλαδή, οργανισμό παγκόσμιας εμβέλειας, με σκοπό την προάσπιση της ειρήνης και της ασφάλειας σε ολόκληρη την οικουμένη. Έκτοτε, τα κράτη-μέλη του Ο.Η.Ε., που ενστερνίστηκαν και τέθηκαν υπέρμαχοι του συγκεκριμένου σκοπού, πολλαπλασιάστηκαν, με αποτέλεσμα να απαριθμεί σήμερα ο συγκεκριμένος οργανισμός 193 χώρες, καθεμία εκ των οποίων καταβάλλει -έστω θεωρητικά- την ύστατη προσπάθεια για τη διατήρηση της διεθνούς ειρήνης και ασφάλειας. Εκτός από τον Ο.Η.Ε., πάντως, ήδη από τις αρχές και, πολλώ δε μάλλον, κατά τη διάρκεια του δεύτερου μισού του 20ου αιώνα, άρχισαν να συγκροτούνται και ορισμένοι μικρότεροι σε αριθμό κρατών-μελών οργανισμοί, που κατέχουν, μέχρι και τις μέρες μας, την ίδια αποστολή. Οι συγκεκριμένοι, επονομαζόμενοι ως «περιφερειακοί» οργανισμοί, υπεραμύνονται επίσης της διατήρησης της διεθνούς ειρήνης και ασφάλειας, ο δε ρόλος που διαδραματίζουν για την επίτευξη του εν λόγω στόχου αποτελεί το κύριο αντικείμενο της παρούσας πτυχιακής εργασίας με επίκεντρο την περίπτωση της ECOWAS. Για τη διεξοδική ανάλυση του ρόλου των περιφερειακών οργανισμών στην εξασφάλιση και τη διαφύλαξη της παγκόσμιας ειρήνης και ασφάλειας, η εργασία μας εκτείνεται σε δύο (2) μέρη. Στο πρώτο της μέρος η έρευνά μας επικεντρώνεται στη θέση, που κατέχουν οι περιφερειακές οργανώσεις κρατών στο σύγχρονο σύστημα συλλογικής ασφάλειας. Για την ανάλυσή της, καταστατική προϋπόθεση αποτελεί η ανάδειξη του ευρύτερου θεσμικού πλαισίου καθορισμού της και πιο συγκεκριμένα του επίσης συνταχθέντος από το 1945 «Χάρτη των Ηνωμένων Εθνών». Γι’ αυτόν τον λόγο, το πρώτο κεφάλαιο της μελέτης μας εστιάζεται στις διατάξεις του Χάρτη περί της προτάξεως της διεθνούς ειρήνης και ασφάλειας, και δη στο VIII Κεφάλαιό του, του οποίου τα άρθρα αναφέρονται στον γενικότερο ρόλο των περιφερειακών οργανώσεων προς τη συγκεκριμένη κατεύθυνση. Ολοκληρώνοντας δε τις επισημάνσεις μας στο θεσμικό πλαίσιο του Ο.Η.Ε., που διέπει τους περιφερειακούς οργανισμούς, αλλά και στις σχέσεις εξάρτησης, ή και ανταγωνισμού, αυτών με τον οργανισμό της διεθνούς κοινότητας, η προσοχή μας, εν συνεχεία, εστιάζεται στην εσωτερική τους οργάνωση. Συγκεκριμένα, το δεύτερο κεφάλαιο του πρώτου μέρους της πτυχιακής μας εργασίας είναι αφιερωμένο τόσο στη διάρθρωση, όσο και στις πρακτικές που χρησιμοποιούν οι περιφερειακές οργανώσεις. Σε ό,τι αφορά τη διάρθρωσή τους, πέραν από τη διατύπωση του ορισμού περί του τι ακριβώς είναι οι συγκεκριμένες ομάδες κρατών, η ανάλυσή μας επεκτείνεται και στα κρίσιμα κοινά στοιχεία, που τις διακρίνουν. Από τα συγκεκριμένα στοιχεία, άλλωστε, εκπορεύεται συνήθως ο ρόλος, αλλά και οι πρακτικές που ενασκεί καθένας εκ των συγκεκριμένων οργανισμών, οι οποίες επίσης αποτελούν πεδίο της ανάλυσής μας στο συγκεκριμένο χωρίο της μελέτης μας. Οι πρακτικές τους, όμως, όπως θα καταδείξουμε, είναι συνυφασμένες και από την προαναφερθείσα σχέση αλληλοεξάρτησής τους με τα θεσμικά όργανα του Ο.Η.Ε. και κυρίως του ανωτάτου εξ’ αυτών, του «Συμβουλίου Ασφαλείας» (“UN Security Council”). Για τη διευκόλυνση της έρευνάς μας, πάντως, ως προς την αναζήτηση και την ανάδειξη του ρόλου και των πρακτικών των περιφερειακών οργανώσεων, το δεύτερο μέρος της εργασίας μας είναι επικεντρωμένο σε μία εξ’ αυτών, την «Οικονομική Κοινότητα Κρατών της Δυτικής Αφρικής» (“ECOWAS”). Στο πρώτο κεφάλαιο του δεύτερου μέρους της πτυχιακής μας εργασίας πραγματοποιείται μία διεξοδική ανάλυση της φυσιογνωμίας της ECOWAS. Σε αυτήν κυριαρχούν οι αρχικοί λόγοι σύστασής του οργανισμού στα μέσα της δεκαετίας του 1970, οι οποίοι, ως επί το πλείστον, επικεντρώνονταν στην οικονομική ανάπτυξη των κρατών-μελών του. Ωστόσο, από τις αρχές της δεκαετίας του 1990, όπως θα καταδείξουμε, ο συγκεκριμένος καταστατικός του στόχος μετεβλήθη εξαιτίας των σοβαρών πολιτικών κρίσεων, που άρχισαν να ξεσπούν σε χώρες της Δυτικής Αφρικής, οι οποίες μετεξελίχθηκαν, στις πλείστες των περιπτώσεων, σε εμφύλιες συρράξεις με μείζονα κοινωνικά προβλήματα για τους πληθυσμούς τους. Με άλλα λόγια, κύριους στόχους της ECOWAS έκτοτε, όπως θα διαπιστώσουμε, αποτέλεσαν η αποκατάσταση και η διατήρηση της ειρήνης και της ασφάλειας σε κράτη-μέλη της, διαμέσου της εξασφάλισης της πολιτικής τους σταθερότητας. Προκειμένου δε να καταστεί η συγκεκριμένη μεταβολή του ρόλου και των σκοπών της πιο κατανοητή, το τελευταίο κεφάλαιο της εργασίας μας καταπιάνεται με τη διαχείριση, από πλευράς ECOWAS, των σοβαροτάτων πολιτικών και κοινωνικών κρίσεων στη Λιβερία στις δεκαετίες του 1990 και του 2000. Πράγματι, στο τελευταίο κεφάλαιο της παρούσας πτυχιακής εργασίας αναλύεται η διαχείριση από τις τάξεις της ECOWAS των σοβαροτάτων κρίσεων της περιόδου εκείνης τόσο σε διάφορα κράτη της Δυτικής Αφρικής, όσο και στη Λιβερία πιο εξειδικευμένα. Στην περίπτωση της Λιβερίας το ενδιαφέρον μας επικεντρώνεται στις παρεμβάσεις της ECOWAS για τη λήξη των δύο (2) εμφυλίων πολέμων κατά τα χρονικά διαστήματα 1989-1996 και 1997-2003 αντίστοιχα, με σκοπό την αποκατάσταση της ειρήνης και την επαναφορά της ασφάλειας για τους πολίτες της υπανάπτυκτης αυτής χώρας. Μάλιστα, της προσοχής μας δεν πρόκειται να διαφύγουν οι διαφορές μεταξύ των δύο (2) αυτών ξεχωριστών επεμβάσεων, οι οποίες έγκεινται αφ’ ενός στην έμφαση στις διπλωματικές παρά στις καθεαυτές στρατιωτικές ενέργειες, που δόθηκε από πλευράς περιφερειακής οργάνωσης κατά τη διάρκεια του πρώτου εμφύλιου πολέμου στη Λιβερία, αφ’ ετέρου στην ενεργό εμπλοκή και του Συμβουλίου Ασφαλείας του Ο.Η.Ε. και την ανάπτυξη συνεργασίας των στρατιωτικών του σωμάτων στην περιοχή με τις αντίστοιχες δυνάμεις της ECOWAS για τον τερματισμό του δεύτερου εμφυλίου πολέμου. Όσον αφορά δε την κατάληξη του συγκεκριμένου κεφαλαίου, αυτή θα περιλαμβάνει μία αποτίμηση της από κοινού δράσης της ECOWAS και του Ο.Η.Ε. και των προσπαθειών για την επαναφορά της ειρήνης τόσο στη Λιβερία, όσο και στη Δυτική Αφρική ευρύτερα. Παράλληλα, στο ίδιο χωρίο θα θίγονται οι προοπτικές της αποτελεσματικότητας αντιστοίχων παρεμβάσεων γενικά των περιφερειακών οργανισμών στον 21ο αιώνα, εφόσον αυτές θα πραγματοποιούνται με την επικουρική συνδρομή των αρμοδίων οργάνων του Οργανισμού Ηνωμένων Εθνών. Κοντολογίς, το πεδίο πάνω στο ποίο αναπτύσσεται η πτυχιακή μας εργασία συνολικά σχετίζεται με τον ρόλο, που καλούνται και κυρίως μπορούν να διαδραματίσουν οι περιφερειακές οργανώσεις στην επίτευξη του υψίστου στόχου, της επίτευξης, δηλαδή, και της διατήρησης της διεθνούς ειρήνης και ασφάλειας. Εξετάζοντας τον εν λόγω τους ρόλο και από μία, αναμφίβολα, ιστορική σκοπιά, το μείζον ερευνητικό ερώτημα που τίθεται στο σύνολό της, έγκειται στο κατά πόσον ο «οικουμενισμός», η διαχείριση, δηλαδή, των σχετικών κρίσεων αποκλειστικά από παγκόσμιους οργανισμούς, ή η «περιφερειοποίηση» αποτελεί αποτελεσματικότερο τρόπο επίλυσής τους. Το συγκεκριμένο ερώτημα καλούμαστε να απαντήσουμε με την ολοκλήρωση της παρούσας μελέτης.The ultimate asset to modern democratic states is peace. Having the world know of two (2) global warfare over the past century, which left behind more than 100 million victims, many war deaths, migrant populations and the international economy completely destabilized, it was almost expected that after the end of the war will seek to restore and secure global peace. For this reason, shortly after the end of the Second World War in 1945, the leaders of more than 50 countries agreed on the development of the establishment of the United Nations, an international organization, a world-wide organization, to defend peace and security throughout the world. Since then, the UN member states, which have embraced and prompted for this purpose, have multiplied, with the result that today it lists 193 countries, of which each pay - although theoretically - the last attempt to preserve international peace and security. Apart from the UN, however, since the beginning, and in the second half of the 20th century, a number of smaller organizations have also begun to be formed in a number of Member States which have until nowadays the same mission. The so-called "regional organizations" dominate the preservation of international peace and security and the role that they play in achieving this goal is the main subject of this diplomatic work focusing on ECOWAS. For a thorough analysis of the role of regional organizations in safeguarding and preserving world peace and security, our work extends to two (2) parts. In its first part, our research focuses on the position of regional state organizations in the modern collective security system. For its analysis, a constitutional precondition is the emergence of the wider institutional framework for its definition, and more specifically that of the United Nations Charter, which was also drafted in 1945. For this reason, the first chapter of our study focuses on the provisions of the Charter on the Advancement of International Peace and Security, in particular its Chapter VIII, whose articles refer to the general role of regional organizations in this direction. Concluding our remarks in the institutional framework of the UN, which governs regional organizations, but also in their relationship of dependence and competition with those of the international community, our attention is then focused on the internal their organization. In particular, the second chapter of the first part is devoted to both the structure and the practices used by regional organizations. As far as their structure is concerned, besides the definition of what exactly these groups of states are, our analysis extends to the critical common elements that distinguish them. Of course, the role of the specific elements is also the practice of each of these organizations, which is also an area of ​​our analysis in the particular passage of our study. Their practices, however, as we shall demonstrate, are also interwoven by the aforementioned relationship of their interdependence with the institutions of the United Nations. and especially the highest of them, the "UN Security Council". In order to facilitate our research, however, in terms of seeking and highlighting the role and practices of regional organizations, the second part of our work is centered on one of them, the "West African Economic Community" ("Economic Community of West African States" ECOWAS "). In the first chapter of the second page of the dissertation, a detailed analysis of the ECOWAS physiognomy is carried out. During this time, the initial reasons for setting up the agency in the mid-1970s dominated, mostly focused on the economic development of the member states. However, since the end of the 1990s, as we shall demonstrate, the specific statute of the objective has changed due to the serious political crises that began to break out in West African countries, which in most cases turned into political conflicts with major social problems for their populations. In other words, the main objectives of ECOWAS since then have been to restore and maintain peace and security in its member countries by ensuring political stability. In order to make the specific change in its role and goals more understandable, the last chapter of our work is concerned with the management by ECOWAS of the serious political and social crises in Liberia in the 1990s and 2000s. Indeed, the last chapter analyzes the management of the ECOWAS ranks of the major crises of that period, both in West Africa and Liberia more specialized. In the case of Liberia, our interest focuses on ECOWAS interventions for the end of the two (2) civil wars in 1989-1996 and 1997-2003 respectively, with a view to restoring peace and restoring security for its citizens underdeveloped country. In fact, our attention will not escape the differences between the two (2) separate interventions, which consist on the one hand of the emphasis on diplomatic rather than the military action itself, given by the regional organization during the first civil war in Liberia, on the other hand, to the active involvement of the UN Security Council. and the development of co-operation of its military forces in the region with the corresponding ECOWAS forces to end the second civil war. As regards the outcome of this chapter, it will include an assessment of the joint action of ECOWAS and the UN. and efforts to restore peace both in Liberia and in West Africa more broadly. At the same time, the prospects for the effectiveness of similar interventions in general for regional organizations in the 21st century will be affected in the same passage, provided that they are carried out with the assistance of the competent organs of the United Nations. In short, the field on which our work is being developed is related to the role that regional organizations are called upon to play in achieving the ultimate goal of achieving international peace and security. In examining this role and from an undoubtedly historical point of view, the major research question put in its entirety is whether the "ecumenism", the management of the crises concerned exclusively by global organizations, or the " regionalization "is a more effective way of resolving them. We are asked to answer this question with the completion of this study

The current situation and the attitudes of judicial officials in Greece regarding their training needs

The education and training of the judiciary is an issue that concerns the quality and efficiency of the judicial system. The aim of this research is to investigate the current situation and attitudes of judicial officers of the criminal-civil courts, administrative courts, and prosecutors' offices in Greece regarding their training and education. They received this training both during their first period of appointment (introductory training) and during their period of service (continuing training). There is very little research on the training and education of judicial officials in Greece, which makes this research necessary. An online structured questionnaire, consisting of seven sections, was designed for the needs of the survey, which was answered by 273 respondents. The results of the survey indicate the absence of organized training by the judicial officers' branch, as well as the increase in the performance and effectiveness of judicial officers when they are trained. Finally, possible solutions and improvements for the education-training policy of judicial officials are proposed

Achieving Senior Tourists’ Active Aging Through Value Co–creation: A Customer-Dominant Logic Perspective

Senior tourists have their own travel behaviors and preferences and require specific resources from the tourism industry and the broader society. This study adopts customer-dominant logic to understand how participating in tourism activities can support seniors to co-create active aging value. Interviews were conducted with 31 senior tourists and 16 tourism and hospitality service providers. Six value themes were identified from the interviews, namely, enjoyment, connectedness, mental vitality, independence, sense of belonging, and selfesteem. The six values were categorized into functional, social, and spiritual dimensions. A value co-creation nexus was developed with continuum- and development-oriented active aging as the two extremes. This nexus highlighted the differentiated efforts exerted by cocreators to create value and identified the value co-creation routines of stakeholders, their corresponding values, and their facilitators. Value co-creation activities were introduced into active aging with tourism as the context. The findings of this study can support the management of tourism services, promote inclusiveness in society, and aid in government policy making

Impact of COVID-19 on cardiovascular testing in the United States versus the rest of the world

Objectives: This study sought to quantify and compare the decline in volumes of cardiovascular procedures between the United States and non-US institutions during the early phase of the coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. Background: The COVID-19 pandemic has disrupted the care of many non-COVID-19 illnesses. Reductions in diagnostic cardiovascular testing around the world have led to concerns over the implications of reduced testing for cardiovascular disease (CVD) morbidity and mortality. Methods: Data were submitted to the INCAPS-COVID (International Atomic Energy Agency Non-Invasive Cardiology Protocols Study of COVID-19), a multinational registry comprising 909 institutions in 108 countries (including 155 facilities in 40 U.S. states), assessing the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on volumes of diagnostic cardiovascular procedures. Data were obtained for April 2020 and compared with volumes of baseline procedures from March 2019. We compared laboratory characteristics, practices, and procedure volumes between U.S. and non-U.S. facilities and between U.S. geographic regions and identified factors associated with volume reduction in the United States. Results: Reductions in the volumes of procedures in the United States were similar to those in non-U.S. facilities (68% vs. 63%, respectively; p = 0.237), although U.S. facilities reported greater reductions in invasive coronary angiography (69% vs. 53%, respectively; p < 0.001). Significantly more U.S. facilities reported increased use of telehealth and patient screening measures than non-U.S. facilities, such as temperature checks, symptom screenings, and COVID-19 testing. Reductions in volumes of procedures differed between U.S. regions, with larger declines observed in the Northeast (76%) and Midwest (74%) than in the South (62%) and West (44%). Prevalence of COVID-19, staff redeployments, outpatient centers, and urban centers were associated with greater reductions in volume in U.S. facilities in a multivariable analysis. Conclusions: We observed marked reductions in U.S. cardiovascular testing in the early phase of the pandemic and significant variability between U.S. regions. The association between reductions of volumes and COVID-19 prevalence in the United States highlighted the need for proactive efforts to maintain access to cardiovascular testing in areas most affected by outbreaks of COVID-19 infection

Posttraumatic stress disorder under ongoing threat: A review of neurobiological and neuroendocrine findings

Contains fulltext : 160125.pdf (publisher's version ) (Open Access)BACKGROUND: Although numerous studies have investigated the neurobiology and neuroendocrinology of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) after single finished trauma, studies on PTSD under ongoing threat are scarce and it is still unclear whether these individuals present similar abnormalities. OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this review is to present the neurobiological and neuroendocrine findings on PTSD under ongoing threat. Ongoing threat considerably affects PTSD severity and treatment response and thus disentangling its neurobiological and neuroendocrine differences from PTSD after finished trauma could provide useful information for treatment. METHOD: Eighteen studies that examined brain functioning and cortisol levels in relation to PTSD in individuals exposed to intimate partner violence, police officers, and fire fighters were included. RESULTS: Hippocampal volume was decreased in PTSD under ongoing threat, although not consistently associated with symptom severity. The neuroimaging studies revealed that PTSD under ongoing threat was not characterized by reduced volume of amygdala or parahippocampal gyrus. The neurocircuitry model of PTSD after finished trauma with hyperactivation of amygdala and hypoactivation of prefrontal cortex and hippocampus was also confirmed in PTSD under ongoing threat. The neuroendocrine findings were inconsistent, revealing increased, decreased, or no association between cortisol levels and PTSD under ongoing threat. CONCLUSIONS: Although PTSD under ongoing threat is characterized by abnormal neurocircuitry patterns similar to those previously found in PTSD after finished trauma, this is less so for other neurobiological and in particular neuroendocrine findings. Direct comparisons between samples with ongoing versus finished trauma are needed in future research to draw more solid conclusions before administering cortisol to patients with PTSD under ongoing threat who may already exhibit increased endogenous cortisol levels.20 p

The association between callous-unemotional traits, externalizing problems, and gender in predicting cognitive and affective morality judgments in adolescence

Contains fulltext : 159171.pdf (publisher's version ) (Open Access)Morality deficits have been linked to callous-unemotional traits and externalizing problems in response to moral dilemmas, but these associations are still obscure in response to antisocial acts in adolescence. Limited evidence on young boys suggested that callous–unemotional traits and externalizing problems were associated with affective but not cognitive morality judgments. The present study investigated these associations in a community sample of 277 adolescents (M age  = 15.35, 64 % females). Adolescents with high callous-unemotional traits showed deficits in affective but not cognitive morality, indicating that they can identify the appropriate moral emotions in others, but experience deviant moral emotions when imagining themselves committing antisocial acts. Externalizing problems and male gender were also strongly related to deficits in affective morality, but they had smaller associations with deficits in cognitive morality too. Implications for treatment and the justice system are discussed.14 p

Urban nightscapes: spatiotemporal narratives and lived perceptions, the case of nighttime Lisbon

Book of proceedings: Annual AESOP Congress, Spaces of Dialog for Places of Dignity, Lisbon, 11-14th July, 2017The basis in writing this article is the dialectical relationship between urban space and human, focusing on the interaction that these two factors demonstrate during the night. In this context, the research interest is directed on the way the urban nightscape experienced from users on the possibilities of (public) space at night and how they affect human behavior and management of leisure, and conversely, on how the nightscape is affected and reshaped by the behavior and social practices of the users, especially young people. It has to be noted that selecting the investigation of the urban nightscape as culture forming space, it was assumed that research will be primarily based on the behavioral approach of night life in the city. Moreover, the urban experience is examined in the aspect of the night as a leisure or recreation time, therefore, it does not concern those who consider night time as working hours. Additionally, in this case, the time limits of night are specified approximately, in order to meet research needs. If we consider that at midnight according to the etymology of the word has been signified as "the middle of the night", night lasts from the time the sun goes down (between 19: 00-20: 00) to 21: 00- 22:00, followed by initiation of the night, lasting until dawn (5:00 to 6:00). Therefore, to overcome this ambiguity, it has been chosen to be noted as the beginning of the night, the time period of 22:00, which coincides the time out for many people and especially for youths.Published versio

Scuplting the void | The House of Wine in Oia

My graduation project was about the design of “The house of wine” in Santorini. The project consists in designing a winery on the exact same location where old quarries once were placed on the outskirts of the village Oia, situated north of the Greek island Santorini. The quarries, a cultural landscape, are positioned right next to the town Oia having a big height-difference and as a consequence, they strongly demark a boundary between the town and the remaining surroundings. This separation has a strong impact on the local landscape and for this reason I wanted to explore the ways a boundary can be transformed from a separating element to a connecting one; explore the boundary as an architectural concept. The attention is focused on ways that a landscape of great importance can be treated and even preserved. Mass, corrosion, void, diversity, imperfection, contrasts. All these, are archetypal types that can be read and found in the island of Santorini. How does a contemporary intervention stand next to them? How does it become part of them? My answer is not based on the form and only the form. New materials are introduced, such as corten steel, contemporary ways of construction are used, but always having as a solid foundation the knowledge that I have acquired from the local way of constructing. The sculpting of the mass - which also refers to the local technique of cave houses – a process that happens from outside to inside can be parallelized with the traditional way of constructing, but using different methods and tools.Explore Lab 15ArchitectureArchitectur