A proposal for the reform of the Hospital in the Late Thirteenth Century

Although opposition to masters was voiced in several military orders in the thirteenth century, the criticism expressed in the Hospital in 1295 was unusual in that an attempt was made to alter the order’s structure of government. It was claimed that masters had not observed the rule and customs of the order, and the Hospital was therefore to be placed under the control of seven diffinitors, of whom the master was to be one, and who were to hold office for life: they were to constitute a self-perpetuating oligarchy. Their proposed powers were to be noticeably greater than those of diffinitors of other religious orders, as the latter usually exercised authority only during provincial or general chapters. Support for the scheme quickly waned, however, and it was not implemented; nor was any attempt made later to revive it. Its failure reflects the widespread acceptance of a strong monarchical form of government, and can be compared with the failure of measures taken in various countries during the late thirteenth and early fourteenth centuries to restrict the independence of secular rulers when these were pursuing policies which were unpopular or unsuccessful

Templar provincial chapters in the later thirteenth and early fourteenth centuries

By the later thirteenth century Templar provincial chapters in the West were being held annually, usually in the spring or early summer. In the French province they were always convened in Paris, but in some other provinces meetings took place in various convents. Those who attended were mostly heads of convents, and it seems that those present usually totalled some forty to fifty brothers: in many provinces the majority were sergeants. Provincial masters normally presided, but occasionally the grand master or visitor had charge. Heads of convents were expected to pay their responsions at the chapter and present a statement about the condition of their houses. There seems, however, to have been no general review of appointments. Moreover, the chapter also acted as a chapter of faults. Yet any current business could also be raised at a meeting, although little is known about the process of decision-making. Provincial chapters appear to have lasted for only a few days, whereas at other Times in the year provincial masters tended to seek counsel from smaller groups of commanders

The Templars and the sea

The sea was most important to the Templars for the transport of men and goods. Brothers and supplies had to be dispatched to the East, but the administration of the Order also necessitated numerous voyages, while Templars were further used as envoys by popes and rulers. Goods were sent not only to the Holy Land, and the Order did engage in some trading by sea. Templars used both merchant ships and their own vessels, and the latter carried pilgrims and merchants as well as brothers. The Order’s experience led kings and princes to employ Templars at times in matters relating to maritime transport. The Templar’s involvement in maritime warfare was limited and occurred mainly in the eastern Mediterranean against Christian as well as Muslim opponents. Only occasional references survive about Templars’ fighting at sea in the West. Templar ships appear to have been crewed mainly by non-Templars, but little is known about the numbers and specifications of the Order’s ships, and it is not clear whether the Templars were active in the construction of vessels.The sea was most important to the Templars for the transport of men and goods. Brothers and supplies had to be dispatched to the East, but the administration of the Order also necessitated numerous voyages, while Templars were further used as envoys by popes and rulers. Goods were sent not only to the Holy Land, and the Order did engage in some trading by sea. Templars used both merchant ships and their own vessels, and the latter carried pilgrims and merchants as well as brothers. The Order’s experience led kings and princes to employ Templars at times in matters relating to maritime transport. The Templar’s involvement in maritime warfare was limited and occurred mainly in the eastern Mediterranean against Christian as well as Muslim opponents. Only occasional references survive about Templars’ fighting at sea in the West. Templar ships appear to have been crewed mainly by non-Templars, but little is known about the numbers and specifications of the Order’s ships, and it is not clear whether the Templars were active in the construction of vessels

Procedures for the Settlement of Disputes between Military Orders in the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries

Military orders sought not only to prevent disputes with similar foundations by agreeing regulations on subjects such as transfers between orders but also to establish long-term procedures for the settlement by arbitration of disputes, particularly about property rights. These usually provided for the naming of a certain number of arbiters drawn from the orders themselves.Yet in practice these arrangements for arbitration were commonly ignored, and ad hoc measures were usually taken to bring altercations to an end: decisions were often entrusted to external arbiters or to the pope. There were several possible reasons for this neglect of agreed procedures, including ignorance on the part of officials. Provisions for the avoidance or settlement of disputes were just one aspect of the networks which were created, either formally or informally, between military orders and which also provided for co-operation in war and mutual aid and defence against aggressors.Military orders sought not only to prevent disputes with similar foundations by agreeing regulations on subjects such as transfers between orders but also to establish long-term procedures for the settlement by arbitration of disputes, particularly about property rights. These usually provided for the naming of a certain number of arbiters drawn from the orders themselves.Yet in practice these arrangements for arbitration were commonly ignored, and ad hoc measures were usually taken to bring altercations to an end: decisions were often entrusted to external arbiters or to the pope. There were several possible reasons for this neglect of agreed procedures, including ignorance on the part of officials. Provisions for the avoidance or settlement of disputes were just one aspect of the networks which were created, either formally or informally, between military orders and which also provided for co-operation in war and mutual aid and defence against aggressors

Solar UV-A radiation and blue light enhance tree leaf litter decomposition in a temperate forest

Sunlight can accelerate the decomposition process through an ensemble of direct and indirect processes known as photodegradation. Although photodegradation is widely studied in arid environments, there have been few studies in temperate regions. This experiment investigated how exposure to solar radiation, and specifically UV-B, UV-A, and blue light, affects leaf litter decomposition under a temperate forest canopy in France. For this purpose, we employed custom-made litterbags built using filters that attenuated different regions of the solar spectrum. Litter mass loss and carbon to nitrogen (C:N) ratio of three species: European ash (Fraxinus excelsior), European beech (Fagus sylvatica) and pedunculate oak (Quercus robur), differing in their leaf traits and decomposition rate, were analysed over a period of 7–10 months. Over the entire period, the effect of treatments attenuating blue light and solar UV radiation on leaf litter decomposition was similar to that of our dark treatment, where litter lost 20–30% less mass and had a lower C:N ratio than under the full-spectrum treatment. Moreover, decomposition was affected more by the filter treatment than mesh size, which controlled access by mesofauna. The effect of filter treatment differed among the three species and appeared to depend on litter quality (and especially C:N), producing the greatest effect in recalcitrant litter (F. sylvatica). Even under the reduced irradiance found in the understorey of a temperate forest, UV radiation and blue light remain important in accelerating surface litter decomposition.Peer reviewe

Ultraviolet radiation accelerates photodegradation under controlled conditions but slows the decomposition of senescent leaves from forest stands in southern Finland

Depending on the environment, sunlight can positively or negatively affect litter decomposition, through the ensemble of direct and indirect processes constituting photodegradation. Which of these processes predominate depends on the ecosystem studied and on the spectral composition of sunlight received. To examine the relevance of photodegradation for litter decomposition in forest understoreys, we filtered ultraviolet radiation (UV) and blue light from leaves of Fagus sylvatica and Bettda pendula at two different stages of senescence in both a controlled-environment experiment and outdoors in four different forest stands (Picea abies, Pagus sylvatica, Acer platanoides, Betula pendula). Controlling for leaf orientation and initial differences in leaf chlorophyll and flavonol concentrations; we measured mass loss at the end of each experiment and characterised the phenolic profile of the leaf litter following photodegradation. In most forest stands, less mass was lost from decomposing leaves that received solar UV radiation compared with those under UV-attenuating filters, while in the controlled environment UV-A radiation either slightly accelerated or had no significant effect on photodegradation, according to species identity. Only a few individual phenolic compounds were affected by our different filter treatments, but photodegradation did affect the phenolic profile. We can conclude that photodegradation has a small stand- and species-specific effect on the decomposition of surface leaf litter in forest understoreys during the winter following leaf fall in southern Finland. Photodegradation was wavelength-dependent and modulated by the canopy species filtering sunlight and likely creating different combinations of spectral composition, moisture, temperature and snowpack characteristics.Peer reviewe

Quantifying the role of UV in decomposition of forest litter using litterbags and a trans-European gradient

International audienc

La décomposition de litière dans une forêt tempérée est fonction de la qualité du rayonnement solaire

International audienc