Meat Consumption, Sustainability and Alternatives: An Overview of Motives and Barriers

Meat and meat products are important sources of protein in the human diet. However, their consumption or excessive consumption has been questioned as this has been related to sustainability and health issues. Due to this, alternatives to conventional meat consumption, such as meat produced more sustainably or meat alternatives, have been considered. The aim of the present work is to gain insight into the meat consumption of different countries, the motives for and barriers to this consumption, as well as into the consumption of more sustainably produced meat with particular focus on organic meat and meat alternatives. Information on meat consumption has been obtained using FAOSTAT data and maps have been constructed using SAS software. Results showed that, in general, albeit with variations between and within countries, there is a tendency to decrease red meat consumption and increase poultry consumption, while for pork consumption the tendency is less clear. Motives and barriers for meat and meat alternative consumption have been reviewed and it is possible to see that these are very variable and that they, in addition to the intrinsic and extrinsic characteristics of the meat, are also related to consumers’ attitudes and beliefs. Thus, it is important to inform consumers in a truthful and reliable way in order to allow them to make well-founded decisions regarding the consumption of these products.info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersio

Evaluation of live growing pigs of different genotypes and sexes using computed tomography

Conocer la composición corporal en animales vivos y la deposición de los diferentes tejidos durante su crecimiento es de vital importancia para, entre otras cosas, caracterizar el efecto de una genética, la condición sexual, el manejo e incluso analizar la eficiencia alimentaria y adecuar la dieta a cada estadio de crecimiento, ya que la composición en tejido graso y muscular del cuerpo de los animal está influenciada tanto por factores intrínsecos como extrínsecos. La aplicación de la tomografía computerizada (CT) en animales vivos permite analizar, de manera no invasiva, la evolución de la composición corporal de un mismo animal a lo largo del período de crecimiento. Esto permite modelizar el crecimiento y desarrollo de los diferentes tejidos del cuerpo sin necesidad alguna de sacrificar el animal. Esta tesis propone conocer la evolución de la composición corporal de cerdos de distintas genéticas (experimento 1) o sexos (experimento 2). El experimento 1 estaba formado por 90 animales de tres genéticas distintas (todas ellas comerciales y altamente utilizadas en el sector), y el experimento 2 estaba formado por 92 animales de cuatro condiciones sexuales distintas (hembras (FE), machos enteros (EM), machos castrados quirúrgicamente (CM) y machos inmunocastrados (IM)). Los animales se evaluaron con el CT a 30, 70, 100 i 120 kg de peso objetivo. Una submuestra de animales de cada genética y sexo (n=5/genética y n=4/sexo) se sacrificaron a los diferentes pesos objetivo y se disecaron total o parcialmente. El resto de animales (animales de seguimiento), se evaluaron con el CT a cada peso objetivo y, al llegar a 120 kg, se sacrificaron. A partir de los animales sacrificados y disecados, se obtuvieron ecuaciones de predicción, de la composición corporal y de las diferentes piezas, que se usaron en el resto de animales de seguimiento. Las predicciones se hicieron para cada genética independientemente (Chapter 4) o bien generalizadas para todas las genéticas y sexos (Chapter 6). Ambas ecuaciones fueron adecuadas para la predicción de la composición corporal (Chapter 8). En este sentido, presentar las predicciones individuales según la genética reduce el error (RMSE entre 0.011 y 0.886). No obstante, la ecuacion global permite generalizar las predicciones para un mayor número de animales, así pues, es preferible usarla cuando la población está mezclada o cuando el parámetro estimado no requiere un alto valor de precisión. Cuando esta precisión se requiere, como es el caso de compañías genéticas, es preferible utilizar las ecuaciones individuales, específicamente desarrolladas para cada genética. Los resultados muestran que los tejidos crecen de manera diferente según la genética s y el sexo (Chapter 5 y 7). El tejido que mostró el mayor coeficiente alométrico fue la grasa, indicando el índice de deposición más rápido de este tejido. De entre las distintas genéticas, LA fue quien mostró la deposición de grasa más rápida (Chapter 5), mientras que respecto a los sexos, los CM e IM fueron los que tuvieron un índice de deposición de grasa más elevado y más lento en los EM y FE (Chapter 7). El comportamiento de la deposición de magro fue inverso al de la grasa. Añadir que, los IM y CM tuvieron un comportamiento muy similar respecto a la velocidad de deposición de grasa y magro, a pesar que los IM se comportaron como los EM hasta que recibieron la segunda dosis de la vacuna de immunocastración. Finalmente, en las condiciones de realización de este trabajo se puede concluir que el CT puede ser muy útil para la industria cárnica, porque los parámetros de calidad y composición de la canal se pueden conocer a pesos muy tempranos. Como resultado, el uso de esta información puede aportar beneficios económicos para todos los integrantes de la cadena alimenticia.Knowledge of the composition of animal bodies and animal tissue growth is very important for the characterization of the effect of a genotype, the sexual condition, the management or to analyze the feed efficiency and adjust the diet to growth states, because fat and lean composition are dependent on intrinsic and extrinsic factors. The application of computed tomography (CT) to living animals allows analyzing non-invasively the evolution of the body composition of a single animal through its growing period. Subsequently, growth and development of the different body tissues can be modeled, without the necessity to slaughter the animal. The PhD Thesis at hand investigates the evolution of the composition of pig bodies from different genetic types (experiment 1) and sexual conditions (experiment 2). Experiment 1 was performed on 90 pigs of three genetic types (all of them were commercial and very used in the swine industry), while experiment 2 was performed on 92 animals with four different sexual conditions (females, entire males, castrated males and immunocastrated males). The animals were scanned by CT at 30, 70, 100 and 120 kg live weigh. One subsample for each genetic type and sexual condition (n=5/genetic type and n=4/sexual condition) were slaughtered at the different target weights and were fully or partially dissected. The rest of the animals (animals of the study) were evaluated with the CT at each target weight and, once they reached 120 kg, they were slaughtered. Knowledge gained from slaughtered and dissected animals was used to formulate prediction equations for body and pieces composition. They were then applied to the animals of the study. Predictions were performed independently for each genetic type (Chapter 4) or generalized for all the genetic types and sexual conditions of this work (Chapter 6). Both equations produce good results for the prediction of body composition (Chapter 8). Presenting the individual predictions depending on the genetic type reduces the error (RMSE between 0.011 and 0.886). However, the global equation allows generalizing the predictions for a bigger number of animals, thus, it has preference if the population is mixed or if high level of accuracy is not required. If high accuracy is needed, for instance for genetic companies, individual equations specifically developed for each genetic type are prefered. Results show that tissues grow different depending on the genetic type and sexual condition (Chapter 5 and 7). Tissue that shows the highest allometric coefficient was the fat, corresponding to the fastest deposition. From the different genotypes, LA was the one that shows the fastest deposition of fat (Chapter 5). With respect to the sexual condition, CM and IM exert the highest deposition value for the fat, with EM and FE showing the lowest (Chapter 7). Lean tissue behaves in the opposite way as fat. The IM and CM had a very similar behavior with respect to the deposition speed of fat and lean, even IM behave as EM until the study animals received the second dose of the immunocastration vaccine. In conclusion, CT can be very useful for the meat industry due to its ability to predict quality parameters, as well as carcass composition, at early growth stage. This technique can thus bring economic benefits for all the livestock and food chain industry

Imaging technologies to study the composition of live pigs: A review

Image techniques are increasingly being applied to livestock animals. This paper overviews recent advances in image processing analysis for live pigs, including ultrasound, visual image analysis by monitoring, dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry, magnetic resonance imaging and computed tomography. The methodology for live pigs evaluation, advantages and disadvantages of different devices, the variables and measurements analysed, the predictions obtained using these measurements and their accuracy are discussed in the present paper. Utilities of these technologies for livestock purposes are also reviewed. Computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging yield useful results for the estimation of the amount of fat and lean mass either in live pigs or in carcasses. Ultrasound is not sufficiently accurate when high precision in estimating pig body composition is necessary but can provide useful information in agriculture to classify pigs for breeding purposes or before slaughter. Improvements in factors, such as the speed of scanning, cost and image accuracy and processing, would advance the application of image processing technologies in livestock animals

Consumers’ Expectations about Meat from Surgical Castrated or Immunocastrated Male and Female Iberian Pigs

A common practice in Iberian pigs is the castration of both males and females, and it can be carried out surgically or by immunization against gonadotropin-releasing factor (GnRF). The aim of this work was to determine consumers’ overall liking and expectations towards Iberian pork from five different sex types (castrated females, entire females, GnRF-vaccinated females, castrated males and GnRF-vaccinated males), as well as to know the attitudes and beliefs of consumers towards castration and immunocastration. Loins from 83 Iberian pigs were collected and evaluated by 252 consumers in Barcelona and Madrid. Consumers evaluated the five types of meat in three situations: blind condition (tasting the product), expectations (without tasting) and informed condition. Finally, attitudes and beliefs towards castration and immunocastration were also determined. Results distinguished three segments of consumers labeled as “Indifferent”, “Against castration and immunocastration” and “Against immunocastration”. Meat from castrated males had higher overall liking scores in the blind condition. Expectations towards pork depending on its sex type affect consumer-informed acceptability; thus, it is important to consider marketing strategies to avoid or direct the effect of the information provided on the acceptability of the pork.info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersio

Influência de diferentes estratégias de alimentação na qualidade da carcaça e qualidade da carne de vacas de descarte alimentadas com pastagem

Animal performance, carcass and meat quality characteristics of beef cull cows under different feeding strategies were evaluated. Cows were allotted to one of four direct grazing treatments combining different levels of forage allowance (FA) and supplementation rate (% of live body weight, BW) using rice bran (RB): T1= FA2%+RB0, T2= FA4%+RB0, T3= FA2%+RB0.8% and T4= FA2%+RB1.6%. Cows from T1 presented lower (P<0.05) slaughter weight (SW) than the other three treatments. Additionally, T1 presented lower weight (P<0.05) for rump and loin, striploin, sirloin, inside round and tri-tip, compared to T2, T3 and T4. Intramuscular fat (IMF), pH (48 h), Warner-Bratzler shear force (WBSF; aged for 7 or 21 days), lean colour, saturated fatty acid (SFA), monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) concentrations did not differ among treatments (P>0.05). A strategic use of low RB supplementation rate grazing on an oats forage crop, improves both carcass and meat qualitry traits of cull cows, adding value and promoting healthy meat production for human consumption from grass-based production systems.Se comparó la producción, las características de la canal y la calidad de la carne de vacas de descarte bajodiferentes estrategias de alimentación fueran evaluadas. Las vacas fueron asignadas a uno de cuatro tratamientos que combinaban diferentes niveles de asignación de forraje (AF) y suplementación con afrechillo de arroz (AA), según el peso vivo (% PV): T1 = AF 2 %, T2 = FA 4 %, T3 = AF 2 % + AA 0.8 % y T4 = FA 2 % + AA 1.6 %. Las vacas de T1 presentaron menor (P < 0.05) peso de faena que los restantes tratamientos. A su vez, T1 presentó menor peso (P < 0.05) para el lomo, bife, nalga de adentro y colita de cuadril, en comparación con T2, T3 y T4. La grasa intramuscular, pH (48 h), fuerza de corte WarnerBratzler (con periodos de maduración de 7 o 21 días), color de la carne y concentración de ácidos grasos (AG) saturados (AGS), monoinsaturados (AGM) y poliinsaturados (AGP) no difirieron entre tratamientos (P > 0.05). Sin embargo, se observaron diferencias en el contenido de los ácidos grasos n6 y n3 (P < 0.05). El uso estratégico de un bajo nivel de suplementación de AA en un verdeo de avena mejoró ciertas características de calidad de la canal y la carne de las vacas de descarte.O desempenho animal, as características de carcaça e a qualidade da carne de vacas de corte (refugo) sobdiferentes estratégias de alimentação foram avaliados. As vacas foram distribuídas em um dos quatro tratamentos de pastoreio direto combinando com diferentes níveis de oferta de forragem (FA) e taxa de suplementação (% do peso vivo, PC) usando farelo de arroz (RB): T1 = FA2 % + RB0, T2 = FA 4 % + RB0, T3 = FA 2 % + RB 0.8 % e T4 = FA 2 % + RB 1.6 %. As vacas do T1 apresentaram menor (P < 0.05) peso de abate (PS) do que os outros três tratamentos. Além disso, T1 apresentou menor peso (P < 0.05) para alcatra e lombo, contrafilé, pernil e tripa, em comparação com T2, T3 e T4. A gordura intramuscular (IMF), o pH (48 h), a força de cisalhamento WarnerBratzler (WBSF; envelhecido por 7 ou 21 dias), a cor da carne, a quantidade de ácido graxo saturado (SFA),monoinsaturados (MUFA) e poliinsaturados (PUFA) não diferiram entre os tratamentos (P > 0.05). No entanto, foram encontradas diferenças entre os tratamentos nos teores de ácidos graxos n6e n3 (P < 0.05). O uso estratégico de baixas taxas de suplementação com farelo de arroz em uma cultura forrageira de aveia melhorou algumas características de qualidade da carne e carcaça de vacas de descarte

Predicting the carcass chemical composition and describing its growth in live pigs of different sexes using computed tomographys

The aims of this study were (1) to evaluate the ability of computed tomography (CT) to predict the chemical composition of live pigs and carcasses, (2) to compare the chemical composition of four different sex types at a commercial slaughter weight and (3) to model and evaluate the chemical component growth of these sex types. A total of 92 pigs (24 entire males (EM), 24 surgically castrated males (CM), 20 immunocastrated males (IM) and 24 females (FE)) was used. A total of 48 pigs (12 per sex type) were scanned repeatedly in vivo using CT at 30, 70, 100 and 120 kg and slaughtered at the end of the experiment. The remaining 44 were CT scanned in vivo and slaughtered immediately: 12 pigs (4 EM, 4 CM and 4 FE) at 30 kg and 16 pigs each at 70 kg and 100 kg (4 per sex type). The left carcasses were CT scanned, and the right carcasses were minced and analysed for protein, fat, moisture, ash, Ca and P content. Prediction equations for the chemical composition were developed using Partial Least Square regression. Allometric growth equations for the chemical components were modelled. By using live animal and carcass CT images, accurate prediction equations were obtained for the fat (with a root mean square error of prediction (RMSEPCV) of 1.31 and 1.34, respectively, and R2 = 0.91 for both cases) and moisture relative content (g/100 g) (RMSEPCV = 1.19 and 1.38 and R2 = 0.94 and 0.93, respectively) and were less accurate for the protein (RMSEPCV = 0.65 and 0.67 and R2 = 0.54 and 0.63, respectively) and mineral content (RMSEPCV from 0.28 to 1.83 and R2 from 0.09 to 0.62). Better equations were developed for the absolute amounts of protein, fat, moisture and ash (kg) (RMSEPCV from 0.26 to 1.14 and R2 from 0.91 to 0.99) as well as Ca and P (g) (RMSEPCV = 144 and 71, and R2 = 0.76 to 0.66, respectively). At 120 kg, CM had a higher fat and lower moisture content than EM. For protein, CM and IM had lower values than FE and EM. The ash content was higher in EM and IM than in FE and CM, while IM had a higher Ca and P content than the others. The castrated animals showed a higher allometric coefficient for fat and a lower one for moisture, with IM having intermediate values. However, for the Ca and P models, IM presented higher coefficients than EM and FE, and CM were intermediate.info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersio

Influence of different feeding strategies on carcass and meat quality of grassfed cull cows

Animal performance, carcass and meat quality characteristics of beef cull cows under different feeding strategies were evaluated. Cows were allotted to one of four direct grazing treatments combining different levels of forage allowance (FA) and supplementation rate (% of live body weight, BW) using rice bran (RB): T1= FA2%+RB0, T2= FA4%+RB0, T3= FA2%+RB0.8% and T4= FA2%+RB1.6%. Cows from T1 presented lower (P0.05). A strategic use of low RB supplementation rate grazing on an oats forage crop, improves both carcass and meat qualitry traits of cull cows, adding value and promoting healthy meat production for human consumption from grass-based production systems.info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersio

Effects of Exogenous 6-Phytase (EC 3.1.3.26) Supplementation on Performance, Calcium and Phosphorous Digestibility, and Bone Mineralisation and Density in Weaned Piglets

Phosphorus (P) is an essential mineral for growing piglets, which is poorly accessible in vegetable feedstuffs as it is stored as phytates. Thus, phytase supplementation is essential to increase P availability. Two experiments were conducted to evaluate a novel 6-phytase (EC 3.1.3.26) in weaned pigs fed low-P diets. In each experiment, one hundred and twenty piglets were fed a positive control (PC; adequate in Ca and P), a negative control (NC; limiting in Ca and P), or NC supplemented with 125, 250, or 500 FTU/kg of phytase (NC125, NC250, and NC500, respectively). P content was lower in diets of Experiment 1 than diets of Experiment 2. In Experiment 1, piglets offered PC or phytase diets had higher growth and efficiency compared with NC diets. In Experiment 2, similar effects were obtained, but the effects were less significant. In both experiments, P and Ca ATTD and bone density were significantly increased with phytase supplementation. Moreover, PC and NC500 had higher P concentrations and lower alkaline phosphatase activity in plasma than NC. To conclude, supplementation with the new 6-phytase at doses up to 500 FTU/kg enhanced P utilization, growth performance, and bone density in piglets fed P-limiting diets.info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersio

An attempt to predict conformation and fatness in bulls by means of artificial neural networks using weight, age and breed composition information

The present study aimed to predict conformation and fatness grades in bulls based on data available at slaughter (carcass weight, age and breed proportions) by means of counter-propagation artificial neural networks (ANN). For chemometric analysis, 5893 bull carcasses (n=2948 and n=2945 for calibration and testing of models, respectively) were randomly selected from the initial data set (n≈27000; one abattoir, one classifier, three years period). Different ANN models were developed for conformation and fatness by varying the net size and the number of epochs. Tested net parameters did not have a notable effect on models’ quality. Respecting the tolerance of ±1 subclass between the actual and predicted value (as allowed by European Union legislation for on-spot checks), the matching between the classifier and ANN grading was 73.6 and 64.9% for conformation and fatness, respectively. Success rate of prediction was positively related to the frequency of carcasses in the class.info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersio

Consumer perception of entire male pork coated with spiced edible films as a new product to mask boar taint

Pork production has undergone a shift towards the rearing of entire male pigs, however, its meat might carry with the presence of boar taint and it would be considered “unfit for human consumption”. To offer a new alternative to the pork sector tailored to the needs of consumers, a viable option would be the use of edible spiced gelatin films to help minimize boar taint and improve its marketability. The responses of 120 regular meat consumers to entire pork with high levels of boar taint and castrated pork free of boar taint, both coated with spiced gelatin films were evaluated. They showed a similar response between entire and castrated male pork coated with spiced films, regardless of whether consumers usually detected unpleasant odours (as farm/animal) when consuming pork or not. Therefore, the new spiced films offer a new range of products to consumers as they contribute to the improvement of the sensory quality of entire male pork, especially among consumers who tend to buy new products.info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersio