Spin-off Process and the Development of Academic Entrepreneurs´ Social Capital

So far, there has been very little in-depth research on how the spin-off process contributes to the development of academic entrepreneurs’ social capital. In this inductive, exploratory and qualitative study, we examine eight academic entrepreneurship case studies. Based on our findings, we propose three mechanisms to explain the contribution of the spin-off process. They are the entrepreneurs´ affiliation with the university, the entrepreneurs´ immersion in the university´s network of relationships, and the new venture creation preparation given to the entrepreneurs by the university

Transnational Networking and Business Success: Ethnic entrepreneurs in Canada

It is agreed that transnational networking plays an important role in the effectiveness of ethnic entrepreneurial firms. Yet, distinctions between the different types of transnational networking and their effects on business effectiveness have received scant attention in the literature, probably because ethnicity has been considered the main actor in the networkingeffectiveness relationship. This paper argues that one of the reasons business effectiveness differs across ethnic entrepreneurial firms is that ethnic entrepreneurs engage in dissimilar types of transnational networking. Analyses of the data generated by 720 ethnic entrepreneurs in Canada, revealed that ethnicity, human capital and push-pull factors play a central role in the engagement of different types of transitional networking; and the different types of transnational networking affect the business turnover (sales) and the business survival (age). Push-pull factors were found to play a marginal role in the business effectiveness. These results highlight the competitive market immigrants and members of ethnic minority groups encounter in the hosting economy and stress the value of transnational networking.Transnational Entrepreneurship, Networks, Immigrant Entrepreneurs, Ethnic Entrepreneur, Push and Pull Factors, Business Success, Business Outcomes

A SYNERGIC MODEL OF GOVERNMENT SUBSIDIZED RESEARCH: TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER, CREATION OF COMPANIES AND INNOVATION

This paper analyzes the nature of technology transfer, when technology is developed under government subsidized research in academic institutions or research centers. It presents some experiences that have been successful abroad. Based on a study carried out in Canada, the paper analyzes models of technology transfer bearing the creation of technological companies and licensing of patents, comparing the results in terms of generation of jobs and income. It departs from the definition of technological companies, technological entrepreneurship and innovation process, to arrive at the controversies on the creation of companies arising from applied research. Next, the paper presents international trends on government subsidized research, to compare the traditional model of research with a synergic model that stimulates technology transfer. It looks at the benefits and risks of the creation of technological companies, to argue that the creation of companies from the research’s outcomes stimulates technological entrepreneurship and innovation, with gains for the research institution that generates the technological company, the researcher-entrepreneur and society.O artigo analisa a natureza da transferência de tecnologia desenvolvida por pesquisa subsidiada em instituições acadêmicas e centros de pesquisa, e mostra algumas experiências que foram bem sucedidas no exterior. Através de estudo realizado no Canadá, analisa os modelos de transferência de tecnologia com a criação de empresas de base tecnológica (EBT’s) e com licenciamentos de patentes, comparando os resultados em termos de geração de empregos e renda. Demonstra a definição de EBT, empreendedorismo tecnológico e processo de inovação, bem como as defesas e controvérsias sobre a criação de empresas a partir da pesquisa aplicada. Em seguida apresenta tendências mundiais das pesquisas subsidiadas, e compara o modelo tradicional de pesquisa com o modelo sinérgico que estimula a transferência de tecnologia. Apresenta os benefícios e riscos da criação de empresa tecnológica e, por fim, conclui que a criação de empresas a partir dos resultados da pesquisa estimula o empreendedorismo tecnológico e a inovação, com benefícios para a organização que deu origem à empresa, ao pesquisador-empreendedor, e para a sociedade

Problems Encountered by Ethnic Entrepreneurs: A Comparative Analysis Across Five Ethnic Groups

Despite growing interest in the difficulties encountered by ethnic entrepreneurs, very little research has yet been done on the subject. This article attempts to fill the gap. A total of 715 Chinese, Italian, Indian/Sikh, Jewish, and Vietnamese entrepreneurs from Montreal, Toronto, and Vancouver were surveyed for the research. The results show that ethnic businesses tend to face the same problems as other businesses, which consequently does not appear to justify the development of support programs specifically for ethnic entrepreneurs. However, this study of established businesses does not consider failed or nascent businesses, which may have experienced additional problems. Further research is required to examine these issues. Also, given the unique social and business dynamics that exist within the ethnic communities studied, support programs should be directed through the networks of these communities

Estudo comparativo entre o processo de criação de empresas tecnológicas e o de empresas tradicionais

Este artigo tem como objetivo comparar o processo de criação de empresas tecnológicas com o as tradicionais e identificar as particularidades do processo percorrido pelo primeiro grupo. Um modelo dividindo o processo de criação em quatro etapas (iniciação, preparação, lançamento e consolidação) foi concebido e usado como quadro de análise. Dois questionários foram respondidos pelos empreendedores de 192 novas empresas, sendo 77 de empresas tecnológicas e 115 de empresas tradicionais. Os resultados da comparação entre os dois grupos indicam que o processo de criação de empresas tecnológicas apresenta certas particularidades, mais especificamente que: (i) o acesso a recursos financeiros assim como a gestão financeira constituem uma grande dificuldade para os empreendedores tecnológicos; (ii) os empreendedores tecnológicos precisam desenvolver suas competências em gestão e em comercialização; (iii) o processo de criação de empresas tecnológicas é mais longo e mais difícil que o das empresas tradicionais; (iv) a análise do mercado representa um desafio para os empreendedores tecnológicos; (v) existe uma diferença significativa entre o processo de criação dos diferentes grupos de empresas tecnológicas, essas diferenças precisam ser consideradas na estruturação de pesquisas futuras e também no planejamento de serviços de apoio aos futuros empreendedores.This article aims to compare the process of setting up technological companies with traditional ones and to identify the features of the process used by the first group. A model dividing the creation process into four stages (initiation, preparation, launch and consolidation) was designed and used as a framework for analysis. Two questionnaires were completed by 192 entrepreneurs of new companies, with 77 technological companies and 115 traditional ones represented. The results of the comparison between the two groups indicate that the process of creation from technology companies has certain peculiarities, more specifically that: (i) the access to financial resources as well as financial management constitute a big challenge to technological entrepreneurs, (ii) technological entrepreneurs need to develop their competences in management and commercialization, (iii) the process of creation of technological companies is longer and harder than that of traditional ones, (iv)market analysis represents a challenge for technological entrepreneurs; (v) there is a significant difference between the process of creation of the different groups of technological companies. These differences need to be considered when planning future research and subsidizing future entrepreneurs

Gestão Estratégica e Compartilhamento da Visão em Micro e Pequenas Empresas

This essay addresses aspects of strategic management in micro and small enterprises (MSEs) that are not usually treated in the literature, especially regarding the development and sharing processes of directors’ vision based on strategic conversation. It follows a systemic learning approach, which is descriptive and based on soft systems methodology, an interpretive perspective of systems theory. Its central concepts are vision and learning. First, however, the essay justifies the need for this type of approach, describes the potential contribution of the vision and learning concepts, and characterizes the approach itself by exploring the literature. The resources employed to develop this article are primarily the available literature, various examples, argumentation, and description. The contributions that it generates include a differentiated perspective to understand strategic management of MSEs, more knowledge about certain aspects scarcely addressed in previous studies, and potentially useful themes and understandings for further studies.O artigo é um ensaio que trata de diferentes aspectos da gestão estratégica de micro e pequenas empresas (MPEs) que não são normalmente tratados na literatura, principalmente quanto aos processos de desenvolvimento e de compartilhamento da visão dos dirigentes dessas empresas com base na conversa estratégica. A abordagem utilizada é a da aprendizagem sistêmica, caracterizada pela utilização dos conceitos de visão e aprendizagem de modo descritivo e apoiado na vertente interpretativa da teoria de sistemas que é a metodologia de sistemas flexíveis. Antes, contudo, a necessidade desse tipo de abordagem é justificada, o potencial de contribuição dos conceitos de visão e aprendizagem é descrito e a abordagem em si é caracterizada com o uso da literatura. Os recursos explorados para a construção do trabalho são principalmente a literatura disponível, exemplos variados, argumentação e descrição. As contribuições geradas concernem uma perspectiva diferenciada para se compreender a gestão estratégica, mais conhecimentos sobre aspectos pouco tratados em estudos precedentes, assim como temas e enfoques potencialmente úteis para a realização de novas pesquisas. DOI:10.5585/riae.v12i2.197

The seeds of divergence: the economy of French North America, 1688 to 1760

Generally, Canada has been ignored in the literature on the colonial origins of divergence with most of the attention going to the United States. Late nineteenth century estimates of income per capita show that Canada was relatively poorer than the United States and that within Canada, the French and Catholic population of Quebec was considerably poorer. Was this gap long standing? Some evidence has been advanced for earlier periods, but it is quite limited and not well-suited for comparison with other societies. This thesis aims to contribute both to Canadian economic history and to comparative work on inequality across nations during the early modern period. With the use of novel prices and wages from Quebec—which was then the largest settlement in Canada and under French rule—a price index, a series of real wages and a measurement of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) are constructed. They are used to shed light both on the course of economic development until the French were defeated by the British in 1760 and on standards of living in that colony relative to the mother country, France, as well as the American colonies. The work is divided into three components. The first component relates to the construction of a price index. The absence of such an index has been a thorn in the side of Canadian historians as it has limited the ability of historians to obtain real values of wages, output and living standards. This index shows that prices did not follow any trend and remained at a stable level. However, there were episodes of wide swings—mostly due to wars and the monetary experiment of playing card money. The creation of this index lays the foundation of the next component. The second component constructs a standardized real wage series in the form of welfare ratios (a consumption basket divided by nominal wage rate multiplied by length of work year) to compare Canada with France, England and Colonial America. Two measures are derived. The first relies on a “bare bones” definition of consumption with a large share of land-intensive goods. This measure indicates that Canada was poorer than England and Colonial America and not appreciably richer than France. However, this measure overestimates the relative position of Canada to the Old World because of the strong presence of land-intensive goods. A second measure is created using a “respectable” definition of consumption in which the basket includes a larger share of manufactured goods and capital-intensive goods. This second basket better reflects differences in living standards since the abundance of land in Canada (and Colonial America) made it easy to achieve bare subsistence, but the scarcity of capital and skilled labor made the consumption of luxuries and manufactured goods (clothing, lighting, imported goods) highly expensive. With this measure, the advantage of New France over France evaporates and turns slightly negative. In comparison with Britain and Colonial America, the gap widens appreciably. This element is the most important for future research. By showing a reversal because of a shift to a different type of basket, it shows that Old World and New World comparisons are very sensitive to how we measure the cost of living. Furthermore, there are no sustained improvements in living standards over the period regardless of the measure used. Gaps in living standards observed later in the nineteenth century existed as far back as the seventeenth century. In a wider American perspective that includes the Spanish colonies, Canada fares better. The third component computes a new series for Gross Domestic Product (GDP). This is to avoid problems associated with using real wages in the form of welfare ratios which assume a constant labor supply. This assumption is hard to defend in the case of Colonial Canada as there were many signs of increasing industriousness during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. The GDP series suggest no long-run trend in living standards (from 1688 to circa 1765). The long peace era of 1713 to 1740 was marked by modest economic growth which offset a steady decline that had started in 1688, but by 1760 (as a result of constant warfare) living standards had sunk below their 1688 levels. These developments are accompanied by observations that suggest that other indicators of living standard declined. The flat-lining of incomes is accompanied by substantial increases in the amount of time worked, rising mortality and rising infant mortality. In addition, comparisons of incomes with the American colonies confirm the results obtained with wages— Canada was considerably poorer. At the end, a long conclusion is provides an exploratory discussion of why Canada would have diverged early on. In structural terms, it is argued that the French colony was plagued by the problem of a small population which prohibited the existence of scale effects. In combination with the fact that it was dispersed throughout the territory, the small population of New France limited the scope for specialization and economies of scale. However, this problem was in part created, and in part aggravated, by institutional factors like seigneurial tenure. The colonial origins of French America’s divergence from the rest of North America are thus partly institutional