Timing in trace conditioning of the nictitating membrane response of the rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) : scalar, nonscalar, and adaptive features

Using interstimulus intervals (ISIs) of 125, 250, and 500 msec in trace conditioning of the rabbit nictitating membrane response, the offset times and durations of conditioned responses (CRs) were collected along with onset and peak latencies. All measures were proportional to the ISI, but only onset and peak latencies conformed to the criterion for scalar timing. Regarding the CR’s possible protective overlap of the unconditioned stimulus (US), CR duration increased with ISI, while the peak’s alignment with the US declined. Implications for models of timing and CR adaptiveness are discussed

Transfusion: with special reference to intravenous infusion of saline solution

The following may be taken as the most important steps in the development of the procedure:1. Transfusion of dissimilar blood.2. Transfusion of human blood.a. Direct Transfusion.b. Indirect Transfusion.c. Transfusion of defibrinated blood.3. Transfusion of human blood mixed with saline solution.4. Saline Infusion.The use of dissimilar blood is attended with such manifest dangers, that it has been universally condemned, and its discussion need not further detain us.Transfusion of undiluted human blood has more to commend it, but each of the three methods proposed obviously labours under the same defect. The supply is of necessity small, and if the object be to counteract the effects of severe bloodloss, by restoring the original bulk of the vascular contents, the attempt must, in the majority of instances, fall consider¬ ably short of complete success. The procedure is more adapted for the treatment of chronic cases by repeated injections of small quantities of blood. As we shall see, however, there are few occasions on which this treatment can be recommended.While each method has certain merits of its own,perhaps the most generally useful is that of direct arm-to-arm trans¬ fusion. But even this, as already pointed out, has many objectionable features, which outweigh in great measure its undoubted advantages. The necessity for a special instrument, and for previous training and practical skill in its use, is sufficient to preclude the possibility of the operation ever becoming adapted to the needs of the general practitioner.We have therefore to choose between transfusion of blood plus the aqueous solution of a certain salt, and the infusion of a saline fluid without the admixture of blood. The de¬ cision as to which of these is to be used obviously turns on the answer to the question, "is blood necessa_ry". If it can be shown that the injection of blood is not a sine qua non, and that equally good results can be obtained by the intravenous infusion of a neutral fluid, such as a solution of common salt, it will be readily conceded,that the latter method has manifest advantages which cannot be claimed for the former, and possesses a range of applicability beyond that attainable by any method of blood transfusion.It is my purpose in this paper to direct attention more especially to certain acute conditions,in which saline infusion appears to be of value as a curative agent, and in so doing I shall have occasion to enter somewhat fully into the subject of haemorrhage. I shall therefore leave the question as to the necessity or otherwise for the injection of blood in cases of acute anaemia, until that subject is more particularly under consideration. There are, however, certain more chronic conditions, in which the transfusion of blood has been strongly advocated as a means of cure. These may be conveniently considered in the present connection

Reward context determines risky choice in pigeons and humans

Whereas humans are risk averse for monetary gains, other animals can be risk seeking for food rewards, especially when faced with variable delays or under significant deprivation. A key difference between these findings is that humans are often explicitly told about the risky options, whereas non-human animals must learn about them from their own experience. We tested pigeons (Columba livia) and humans in formally identical choice tasks where all outcomes were learned from experience. Both species were more risk seeking for larger rewards than for smaller ones. The data suggest that the largest and smallest rewards experienced are overweighted in risky choice. This observed bias towards extreme outcomes represents a key step towards a consilience of these two disparate literatures, identifying common features that drive risky choice across phyla

Achievement goals, reasons for goal pursuit, and achievement goal complexes as predictors of beneficial outcomes: Is the influence of goals reducible to reasons?

In the present research, we proposed a systematic approach to disentangling the shared and unique variance explained by achievement goals, reasons for goal pursuit, and specific goal-reason combinations (i.e., achievement goal complexes). Four studies using this approach (involving nearly 1,800 participants) led to 3 basic sets of findings. First, when testing goals and reasons separately, mastery (-approach) goals and autonomous reasons explained variance in beneficial experiential (interest, satisfaction, positive emotion) and self-regulated learning (deep learning, help-seeking, challenging tasks, persistence) outcomes. Second, when testing goals and reasons simultaneously, mastery goals and autonomous reasons explained independent variance in most of the outcomes, with the predictive strength of each being diminished. Third, when testing goals, reasons, and goal complexes together, the autonomous mastery goal complex explained incremental variance in most of the outcomes, with the predictive strength of both mastery goals and autonomous reasons being diminished. Comparable results were observed for performance (-approach) goals, the autonomous performance goal complex, and performance goal-relevant outcomes. These findings suggest that achievement goals and reasons are both distinct and overlapping constructs, and that neither unilaterally eliminates the influence of the other. Integrating achievement goals and reasons offers the most promising avenue for a full account of competence motivation

The joint influence of personal achievement goals and classroom goal structures on achievement-relevant outcomes

The authors provide an analytic framework for studying the joint influence of personal achievement goals and classroom goal structures on achievement-relevant outcomes. This framework encompasses 3 models (the direct effect model, indirect effect model, and interaction effect model), each of which addresses a different aspect of the joint influence of the 2 goal levels. These 3 models were examined together with a sample of 1,578 Japanese junior high and high school students from 47 classrooms. Results provided support for each of the 3 models: Classroom goal structures were not only direct, but also indirect predictors of intrinsic motivation and academic self-concept, and some cross-level interactions between personal achievement goals and classroom goal structures were observed (indicating both goal match and goal mismatch effects). A call is made for more research that takes into consideration achievement goals at both personal and structural levels of representation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)(journal abstract

Rising school absences: the post pandemic education divide

Over 28% of primary pupils and 40% of FSM secondary pupils who qualified for free school meals were persistently absent during the 2021/22 autumn term. Lee Elliot Major and Andy Eyles write that while some of the contributing factors are known, the evidence on how to reduce persistent absenteeism is weak