Proposing a Framework for the Restorative Effects of Nature through Conditioning: Conditioned Restoration Theory

Natural environments have been shown to trigger psychological and physiological restoration in humans. A new framework regarding natural environments restorative properties is proposed. Conditioned restoration theory builds on a classical conditioning paradigm, postulating the occurrence of four stages: (i) unconditioned restoration, unconditioned positive affective responses reliably occur in a given environment (such as in a natural setting); (ii) restorative conditioning, the positive affective responses become conditioned to the environment; (iii) conditioned restoration, subsequent exposure to the environment, in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus, retrieves the same positive affective responses; and (iv) stimulus generalization, subsequent exposure to associated environmental cues retrieves the same positive affective responses. The process, hypothetically not unique to natural environments, involve the well-documented phenomenon of conditioning, retrieval, and association and relies on evaluative conditioning, classical conditioning, core affect, and conscious expectancy. Empirical findings showing that restoration can occur in non-natural environments and through various sensory stimuli, as well as findings demonstrating that previous negative experience with nature can subsequently lower restorative effects, are also presented in support of the theory. In integration with other existing theories, the theory should prove to be a valuable framework for future research.publishedVersio

Exploring the restorative effects of environments through conditioning : the conditioned restoration theory

Psychological and physiological restoration have shown to occur in environments containing nature, such as forests, parks and rooms with a window view to nature. The thesis explores the option of explaining restoration through a twostep conditioning model, named the conditioned restoration theory. Conditioned restoration theory suggests that in a twostep process people firstly learn to associate nature with a relaxing emotion, then later retrieves the same emotion when presented with an associated stimulus. Individual steps of the models integrate theory from evaluative conditioning and placebo research, as well as research results from environmental psychology. A study was conducted to further investigate the proposed conditioned restoration framework, exploring whether restoration is affected by experience with nature. A 2x2 randomly assigned, partially doubleblind, experimental design (N = 31) examined the effect of viewing pictures of nature and urban environments on the Attention Network Task, digit span backwards, mood, and investigate the moderation effect of previous experience with nature. The Experience with Nature in Child and Adulthood inventory was developed to assess earlier and current experience with nature. Results suggest that viewing pictures of nature significantly improves the executive control sub score of attention network task, reduce arousal, and partial signs of an improved digit span backwards scores. Regression analysis suggest that improvement in executive control is negatively related to the Love and Care for Nature scale, arousal in nature as a child, and heart rate variability, as well as positively related to current amount of interaction with nature. Regression analysis should be interpreted as suggestive and need replication to validate results. As predicted by conditioned restoration theory, viewing pictures of nature reduce arousal, and arousal in nature as a child predicts increase restoration. This suggest low arousal has been conditioned to nature in childhood, affecting restoration. Coupled with previous research, the thesis suggests conditioned restoration theory as a valid framework for the restorative effect of environments, which could prove to be a major contribution to environmental psychology

Prevalence of Two-Syllable Digits Affecting Forward Digit Span Test Score: A Potential Reliability Factor in Digit Span Tests and New Light to the Word Length Effect

The word length effect shows a connection between word length and working memory performance. Although the relationship between digit verbal length and digit span has been investigated between languages, it has not been investigated within a language. It was hypothesized that this effect can be shown as a connection between the prevalence of digits with two syllables and digit span score. The study examined the effect of amount of syllables on Norwegian digit span test scores by altering the prevalence of two-syllable digits using three conditions in a repeated measures design (N = 54). Results suggest that an elimination of two-syllable digits in a digit span test significantly reduced forward span test score (Cohen’s d = 0.36), but had no effect on backward span scores. These results suggest that a balanced distribution of two-syllable digits in a forward digit span tests should theoretically increase the test’s comparability and reduce language-related biases thus increasing the test’s parallel-form reliability. A peak-span model is proposed to integrate the findings into previous research on the word length effect

Innovation and traffic safety: analysis of four Norwegian county authorities

Nævestad, T.-O., Milch, V., Blom, J., Elvik, R., Bugge, M., Endresen Normann, H., … Egner, L. E. (2024). Innovation and traffic safety: analysis of four Norwegian county authorities. Traffic Safety Research, 5, 000038. https://doi.org/10.55329/ntgl3123This study examines the relationships between traffic safety innovations, innovation culture, and safety culture in four Norwegian county authorities three years after a comprehensive structural reform. Following the reform, the county authorities had to establish new organisations, routines, and systems. The study is based on qualitative interviews (N = 42) and a quantitative survey (n = 392) among people who work with traffic safety and/or mobility in the county authorities. The qualitative results show in particular that the respondents have gained new perspectives on traffic safety as a result of being co-organised with new professional groups. Additionally, we see examples of new methods and new forms of collaboration in traffic safety being implemented. The survey results show statistically significant differences between the county authorities' scores on an index for traffic safety innovations. County authorities' scores on this index is predicted by the county authorities' innovation culture, which in turn is predicted by safety culture. This indicates that innovation culture should be understood as an aspect of a learning safety culture. We find statistically significant differences between county authorities with respect to how demanding the organizational changes related to the regional reform have been for the county authorities studied. The results from this study can also be useful for change processes in other organisations.Innovation and traffic safety: analysis of four Norwegian county authoritiespublishedVersio

Exploring the restorative effects of environments through conditioning : the conditioned restoration theory

Psychological and physiological restoration have shown to occur in environments containing nature, such as forests, parks and rooms with a window view to nature. The thesis explores the option of explaining restoration through a twostep conditioning model, named the conditioned restoration theory. Conditioned restoration theory suggests that in a twostep process people firstly learn to associate nature with a relaxing emotion, then later retrieves the same emotion when presented with an associated stimulus. Individual steps of the models integrate theory from evaluative conditioning and placebo research, as well as research results from environmental psychology. A study was conducted to further investigate the proposed conditioned restoration framework, exploring whether restoration is affected by experience with nature. A 2x2 randomly assigned, partially doubleblind, experimental design (N = 31) examined the effect of viewing pictures of nature and urban environments on the Attention Network Task, digit span backwards, mood, and investigate the moderation effect of previous experience with nature. The Experience with Nature in Child and Adulthood inventory was developed to assess earlier and current experience with nature. Results suggest that viewing pictures of nature significantly improves the executive control sub score of attention network task, reduce arousal, and partial signs of an improved digit span backwards scores. Regression analysis suggest that improvement in executive control is negatively related to the Love and Care for Nature scale, arousal in nature as a child, and heart rate variability, as well as positively related to current amount of interaction with nature. Regression analysis should be interpreted as suggestive and need replication to validate results. As predicted by conditioned restoration theory, viewing pictures of nature reduce arousal, and arousal in nature as a child predicts increase restoration. This suggest low arousal has been conditioned to nature in childhood, affecting restoration. Coupled with previous research, the thesis suggests conditioned restoration theory as a valid framework for the restorative effect of environments, which could prove to be a major contribution to environmental psychology

Proposing a Framework for the Restorative Effects of Nature through Conditioning: Conditioned Restoration Theory

Natural environments have been shown to trigger psychological and physiological restoration in humans. A new framework regarding natural environments restorative properties is proposed. Conditioned restoration theory builds on a classical conditioning paradigm, postulating the occurrence of four stages: (i) unconditioned restoration, unconditioned positive affective responses reliably occur in a given environment (such as in a natural setting); (ii) restorative conditioning, the positive affective responses become conditioned to the environment; (iii) conditioned restoration, subsequent exposure to the environment, in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus, retrieves the same positive affective responses; and (iv) stimulus generalization, subsequent exposure to associated environmental cues retrieves the same positive affective responses. The process, hypothetically not unique to natural environments, involve the well-documented phenomenon of conditioning, retrieval, and association and relies on evaluative conditioning, classical conditioning, core affect, and conscious expectancy. Empirical findings showing that restoration can occur in non-natural environments and through various sensory stimuli, as well as findings demonstrating that previous negative experience with nature can subsequently lower restorative effects, are also presented in support of the theory. In integration with other existing theories, the theory should prove to be a valuable framework for future research

Prevalence of Two-Syllable Digits Affecting Forward Digit Span Test Score: A Potential Reliability Factor in Digit Span Tests and New Light to the Word Length Effect

The word length effect shows a connection between word length and working memory performance. Although the relationship between digit verbal length and digit span has been investigated between languages, it has not been investigated within a language. It was hypothesized that this effect can be shown as a connection between the prevalence of digits with two syllables and digit span score. The study examined the effect of amount of syllables on Norwegian digit span test scores by altering the prevalence of two-syllable digits using three conditions in a repeated measures design (N = 54). Results suggest that an elimination of two-syllable digits in a digit span test significantly reduced forward span test score (Cohen’s d = 0.36), but had no effect on backward span scores. These results suggest that a balanced distribution of two-syllable digits in a forward digit span tests should theoretically increase the test’s comparability and reduce language-related biases thus increasing the test’s parallel-form reliability. A peak-span model is proposed to integrate the findings into previous research on the word length effect

Low free-riding at the cost of subsidizing the rich. Replicating Swiss energy retrofit subsidy findings in Norway

Understanding free-riding is central to effective household energy retrofit subsidy policymaking. We replicate a Swiss study on free-riding prevalence in household energy retrofitting in Norway Studer and Rieder (2019). Compared to the original studies free-riding prevalence of 50%, we find only 10%, indicating that Norwegian free-riding is low. Similar to the original study, we find that the use of advisory service and having a good perception of the implementer is associated with not free-riding, but argue these findings should not be interpreted entirely causally, as confounding variables can also explain this association. Finally, we find that Norwegian retrofit subsidies are heavily focused on high-income households, which has ethical implications. Comparing the subsidy systems of the two countries, our findings indicate that raising the energy standard threshold for receiving retrofit subsidies leads to less free-riding, but could stimulate less retrofitting as a whole and focuses distribution of the subsidies on to rich households

Beyond expectation: a case for nonpersonal contextual factors in a more comprehensive approach to the placebo effect and the contribution of environmental psychology

Creating an optimized health care environment to maximize the probability and magnitude of placebo effects draws on a number of well-researched mechanisms such as the patient’s positive expectation toward treatment outcome. Patient-centered communication styles influence expectations and can thus be considered as a form of supplemental treatment. Unconsciously processed contextual triggering and facilitating placebo effects are omnipresent in clinical settings as well as in all other social and physical environments. Contextual cues in both the social and physical domain exert influences on the recipient’s emotional state and recreational experiences. While the majority of research focuses on improving the patients’ expectations, classical conditioning effects of nonsocial contextual factors have been largely neglected in discussions on practical implementation of placebo-enhancing environments. Built on the empirically well-supported argument that conditioning processes act as a powerful tool to mobilize self-healing resources just as verbally induced expectations do, we argue for a stronger consideration of the effects of permanent, nonsocial and nonverbal environmental contexts. Environmental psychology is a new field of research within the psychological domain and offers a toolbox of opportunities for medical psychological research and health care practitioners to improve the treatment outcomes and benefits of health care environments