Moving beyond job search quantity: Towards a conceptualization and self-regulatory framework of job search quality

Abstract Job seeking is an important aspect throughout people's careers. Extant theory and research has focused on one particular dimension of job search, that is, intensity/effort (i.e., job search quantity), posing that intensity/effort importantly affects employment success. The present conceptual paper extends job search theory by arguing for the importance of job search quality in explaining job search and employment success. We conceptualize job search quality as consisting of process quality and product/behavior quality, and propose that high-quality job search products/behaviors are more likely with a high-quality job search process. A four-phased cyclical self-regulatory model is presented, specifying the components of job search process quality. We build theory regarding the interrelations between quality components, the antecedents and outcomes of job search quality, and the moderators of these relations. This theory offers new and more detailed explanations for previous findings, directions for future research, and practical guidelines regarding (re)employment success and services. At any point, many individuals engage in job seeking, including unemployed people searching for reemployment, employed people looking for a new job, school-leavers or graduating students seeking their first job, and nonworking people (re)entering the labor force In addition to these explanations, one may question whether effort/intensity and number of job search sources/activities are the only important components of people's job search behavior. Although various scholars have coined the notion of job search quality (i.e., Organizational Psychology Review 3(1) quality and the conditions that impact those relations. The purpose of this conceptual paper is threefold. First, it aims to identify and delineate the components of job search quality, as well as conceptualize the relations among those components. In doing so, we synthesize relevant research into a conceptual framework of job search quality. Second, we build theory regarding the antecedents and outcomes of job search quality, and the moderators of these relations. Third, this paper aims to push job seeking research into new directions, by challenging the field to develop, study, and incorporate assessments of job search quality in addition to just job search quantity. We argue that a better understanding of job search quality is essential to advance both research and practice regarding reemployment success and services. We begin with a brief overview of extant job search theory, portraying that previous research has defined job search as a multistage process, albeit without specific attention to quality. We then draw upon the marketing and total quality management literature to argue for a distinction between job search product quality and job search process quality, and for conceptualizing job search process quality as a highly selfregulated job search. Extending previous job search theory and models, we use extant selfregulatory theory and recent advancements in the self-regulation literature to develop the components of our multistage job search quality process framework (see Extant job search theory Previous research describes job search as involving specific behaviors to identify labor market alternatives, acquire information about these alternatives, and actively pursue job opportunities Job search is often conceptualized as a multiphased process, consisting of several sequential stages. In his job search model, Soelberg (1967) described a deliberation phase of evaluation and occupational choice, followed by an implementation phase during which people allocate time, money, and effort to the job search. Building on this idea, Blau (1994) identified a preparatory and an active job search phase. Also broader theories on human behavior and decision-making have been used to suggest different stages in the job search process. For example, In addition to the conceptualization of job search as a multiphased process, recent theorizing has emphasized the self-regulatory Van Hooft et al. 5 Although some of these theories and models (implicitly) recognize the importance of job search quality (i.e., Conceptualizing job search quality The underpinnings of our multicomponent model of job search quality originate from previous work on product/service quality in the marketing literature. Below we describe this research as related to the conceptualization of quality, and argue for distinguishing between job search product quality and job search process quality. Quality as a product versus process The concept of quality in general has multiple and often very broad or muddled definitions. Reeves and Bednar (1994) identified several types of definitions of product/ service quality, and reviewed each definition's strengths and weaknesses. Based on this review, job search quality can be conceptualized as performing one's job search activities in such a way that those meet/exceed the expectations of the demanding parties of the labor market (e.g., selecting organizations, recruiters, assessors, hiring managers, counselors). A strength of this conceptualization is its external, organizationoriented focus, since what is high quality ultimately depends on the evaluations of the demanding parties of the labor market. However, although the demanding parties' expectations include some universals, these are to a large extent idiosyncratic (e.g., in each industry different ideas prevail about what constitutes a high-quality résumé or interview). A remaining question thus is how job seekers should perform their job search activities in order to increase the chances to meet those (idiosyncratic) expectations. Therefore, this external perspective to quality should be complemented by an internal or job seeker perspective, which holds that a high-quality job search refers to a job search that conforms to certain set and established standards and specifications. This definition implies a focus on the job search process. That is, in order to develop the specific quality standards and specifications, the job search should be disaggregated in its composing elements, and quality standards should be developed for each element. These quality standards can then offer prescriptive guidelines for job seekers and their counselors as to how to conduct a high-quality job search, which should ultimately lead to job search products that likely meet/exceed the demanding parties' expectations. Thus, we argue for a distinction between an external, organization-oriented perspective towards quality, and an internal, job seeker perspective towards quality. The external perspective refers to job search quality as job search behaviors or products (i.e., networking Van Hooft et al. 7 behavior, résumés, application letters, interview behavior) that meet/exceed the expectations of the demanding parties at the labor market. Operationalization and measurement of job search quality according to this perspective by definition involves (to some extent subjective) ratings of for example recruiters, hiring managers, or employment counselors on the extent to which the job seeker's products (e.g., résumé, application letter) or behaviors (e.g., networking, interview behavior) meet/ exceed their expectations. The internal perspective, in contrast, focuses on job search quality as a job search process that conforms to certain standards and specifications. The conceptualization of quality as composed of process quality and product quality can be further substantiated using the total quality management (TQM) literature. The core idea of TQM is hat high-quality products are impossible without implementing high-quality processes Similarly to TQM, we argue that highquality job search products and behaviors are more likely when the job search process is of high quality, and that a high-quality job search process is characterized by cycles of planning and analysis of the performed activities, enabling continuous improvement and learning. That is, job search is a difficult and complex process, involving a wide array of available methods and channels to use, and multiple behaviors that job seekers are often relatively unfamiliar with. Oftentimes, it is unclear exactly which methods and behaviors are effective and which are not. With conscious and careful attention to planning, analysis of performed job search activities, and adjustment and improvement of one's job search behavior based on such analysis and feedback from the environment, it is more likely that job seekers can learn and enhance their performance in order to improve fit with the labor market demands and meet the recruiting organizations' expectations. Therefore, it is important to further explicate what a high-quality process exactly entails. Given the multiphased nature of the job search process, we pose that job search process quality cannot be conceptualized as a single one-dimensional construct, but is multidimensional in nature, encapsulating all phases of the job search process. The next sections focus on elaborating job search process quality, using self-regulation theory. Job search quality as a self-regulated process Self-regulation refers to ''those processes, internal and/or transactional, that enable an individual to guide his/her goal-directed activities over time and across changing circumstances (contexts)'' (Karoly, 1993, p. 25). Similarly, Zimmerman (2000, p. 14) defines self-regulation as processes of ''self-generated thoughts, feelings, and actions that are planned and cyclically adapted to the attainment of personal goals.'' Self-regulation involves selfcontrol of attention, thoughts, affect, and behavior deliberately or automatically Self-regulation is especially needed in the attainment of distal goals that involve lengthy processes, composed of tasks low on intrinsic (activity-related) motivation and high on extrinsic (outcome-related) motivation Organizational Psychology Review 3(1) needed as those tasks are inherently pleasurable, interesting, and fun. However, for tasks that are difficult, boring, unpleasant, or otherwise aversive (i.e., low intrinsic motivation), but important to attain some valued goal (i.e., high extrinsic motivation), people need selfregulation (e.g., regulation of effort, reminding oneself of the valued outcome, maintenance actions directed at increasing interest) to ensure task persistence and performance. For most individuals, job search is characterized by this combination of low intrinsic and relatively high extrinsic motivation. That is, job search activities are rarely considered to be fun, enjoyable, and entertaining. Rather, the job search process is mostly experienced as difficult and full of negative emotions The cognitive forethought phases are succeeded by a behavioral phase of goal striving, directional maintenance, and volitional control during which self-regulation is needed to initiate and maintain the planned activities. Lastly, we propose that a high-quality job search process requires reflection and revision. That is, without thorough analysis and evaluation of one's job search behavior in the context of the established goals and based on the feedback from the environment, an upward cycle of learning and performance enhancement (which is an essential part of quality; cf. TQM, a process Summary and formal definitions of job search quality In summary, we argued that in conceptualizing job search quality one must distinguish between the quality of job search behaviors/products and the quality of the job search process. We further argued that higher quality behaviors/products are more likely the higher the process quality. Based on an organization-oriented, external perspective towards quality, we defined job search product quality as the extent to which a job seeker's job search behaviors/products meet/exceed the expectations of the demanding parties at the labor market. Furthermore, using a job seeker-oriented, internal perspective towards quality, job search process quality was conceptualized as the extent to which the process conforms to certain standards and specifications. Based on TQM, which focuses on quality cycles, we theorized that those process quality standards and specifications refer to conforming to the ordered sequence of four self-regulatory job search phases. Thus, synthesizing the job seeker-oriented, internal perspective on quality, the TQM principles, and self-regulation theory, we define job search process quality as the extent to which a job search is self-regulated, that is, the extent to which a job search is conducted by cycling through the four sequential self-regulatory phases of goal establishment, planning of the goal pursuit, goal striving, and reflection

Behind the wheel: What drives the effects of error handling?

Existing research comparing error management (a strategy focusing on increasing the positive and decreasing the negative consequences of errors) to error prevention (a strategy focusing on working faultlessly), has identified error management as beneficial for multiple outcomes. Yet, due to various methodological limitations, it is unclear whether the effects previously found are due to error prevention, error management, or both. We examine this in an experimental study with a 2 (error prevention: yes vs. no)× 2 (error management: yes vs. no) factorial design. Error prevention had negative effects on cognition and adaptive transfer performance. Error management alleviated worry and boosted one’s perceived self-efficacy. Overall, the results show that error prevention and error management have unique outcomes on negative affect, self-efficacy, cognition, and performance

The cross-cultural generalizability of the theory of planned behavior: A study on jobseeking in the Netherlands

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Specific job search self-efficacy beliefs and behaviors of unemployed ethnic minority women

This two-wave field study draws from social cognitive theory to investigate the specific job search self-efficacy beliefs and behaviors of unemployed ethnic minority women in the Netherlands. We go beyond prior job search research that predominantly used white samples and conceptualized job search self-efficacy and behavior as global, unidimensional constructs. We found that networking self-efficacy and Internet self-efficacy were the main predictors of ethnic minority women's job search behaviors. Moreover, the more time they spent on contacting employment agencies and looking at job ads the more job offers they received. Finally, time spent on job ads was more positively related to job offers when job ad self-efficacy was high and time spent on networking only predicted job offers when networking self-efficacy was high

The job search grind: Perceived progress, self-reactions, and self-regulation of search effort.

Guided by theory and research on self-regulation and goal pursuit, we offer a framework for studying the dynamics of unemployed individuals' job search. A daily survey over three weeks demonstrated vacillation in job seeker affect and, to a lesser extent, "reemployment efficacy." Daily perceived job search progress was related to this vacillation. Lower perceived progress on any given day was related to more effort the following day. The study provides insights into the daily dynamics of job search and elucidates the roles of search progress, affect, and three key moderators-financial hardship, employment commitment, and "action-state orientation"-in explaining these dynamics

Decompressing Stoma as Bridge to Elective Surgery is an Effective Strategy for Left-sided Obstructive Colon Cancer:A National, Propensity-score Matched Study

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this population-based study was to compare decompressing stoma (DS) as bridge to surgery (BTS) with emergency resection (ER) for left-sided obstructive colon cancer (LSOCC) using propensity-score matching. SUMMARY BACKGROUND DATA: Recently, an increased use of DS as BTS for LSOCC has been observed in the Netherlands. Unfortunately, good quality comparative analyses with ER are scarce. METHODS: Patients diagnosed with nonlocally advanced LSOCC between 2009 and 2016 in 75 Dutch hospitals, who underwent DS or ER in the curative setting, were propensity-score matched in a 1:2 ratio. The primary outcome measure was 90-day mortality, and main secondary outcomes were 3-year overall survival and permanent stoma rate. RESULTS: Of 2048 eligible patients, 236 patients who underwent DS were matched with 472 patients undergoing ER. After DS, more laparoscopic resections were performed (56.8% vs 9.2%, P < 0.001) and more primary anastomoses were constructed (88.5% vs 40.7%, P < 0.001). DS resulted in significantly lower 90-day mortality compared to ER (1.7% vs 7.2%, P = 0.006), and this effect could be mainly attributed to the subgroup of patients over 70 years (3.5% vs 13.7%, P = 0.027). Patients treated with DS as BTS had better 3-year overall survival (79.4% vs 73.3%, hazard ratio 0.36, 95% confidence interval 0.20-0.65) and fewer permanent stomas (23.4% vs 42.4%, P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: In this nationwide propensity-score matched study, DS as a BTS for LSOCC was associated with lower 90-day mortality and better 3-year overall survival compared to ER, especially in patients over 70 years of age

The Joint Role of Locus of Control and Perceived Financial Need in Job Search

Guided by economic rational choice theory and the behavioral-coping literature, the present study examined contrasting perspectives of the role of job-search locus of control (JSLOC) and perceived financial need in predicting job-search intensity. Data were collected in two independent studies in the Netherlands and in the United States, both using a two-wave longitudinal design. Results from both studies suggested that job seekers with external JSLOC and high perceived financial need engaged in more intense search behavior to compensate for anticipated difficulties in finding employment. Findings suggested that stress may mediate this relation, and may play a positive role in the job-search process

Reversing job loss and enhancing job search

Job loss and unemployment are major stressors in people’s working lives, with negative consequences for the individuals themselves and their families. In this chapter, we describe these negative health and wellbeing consequences. We further outline the benefits of returning to work, emphasizing the importance of suitable and sustainable re-employment. To handle and reverse their precarious situation, unemployed individuals need to engage in self-regulatory coping behaviors. We describe research showing that job search is an effective coping behavior, as its intensity and quality positively affect re-employment success. Finding decent re-employment, however, is not easy and influenced by factors outside the individual’s control. We outline such system, labor market, situational, and stable individual factors in the context of health, job search, and re-employment. These factors help identify specific groups that are hit harder by unemployment and target those who need help in the re-employment process. Further, we identify malleable antecedents that facilitate job search motivation, intensity, and quality. Because job search is difficult and comes with setbacks and rejections, unemployed individuals need to cope with and regulate their emotions to support their mental health. We discuss several individual-level interventions to foster self-regulation of emotions and behavior during the job search process

In the eye of the beholder: leader error orientation, employee perception of leader, and employee work-related outcomes

Organizations, and the leaders within them, have been slow in adopting error management, an orientation that accepts error occurrence and focuses on correction and learning from errors. Image concerns are a potential barrier, specifically concerns about how a leader will be perceived by employees when adopting an error management orientation. In both an experimental study (Study 1; 73 student and non-student participants) and a field study (Study 2; 454 employees and 95 leaders) we explored the relationship between leaders’ perceived error orientation and employees’ perceptions of the warmth and competence of those leaders. Moreover, in Study 2 we extend our findings by testing the indirect effects of leader error orientation via perceived leader warmth and competence on indicators of employees’ work-related outcomes (i.e., job satisfaction, turnover intention, work engagement, and employee job performance). Our findings provide the first evidence to suggest that leaders should not be reluctant to apply error management in their practice as it offers benefits both for employees’ perception of leaders and for employees’ work-related outcomes. To inspire future research, based on previous theorizing and our findings, we propose an integrative theoretical model of the interindividual effects of leader error orientation on employee perceived leader warmth, competence, and work-related outcomes at both the individual and team levels