Abstract Job seeking is an important aspect throughout people's careers. Extant theory and research has focused on one particular dimension of job search, that is, intensity/effort (i.e., job search quantity), posing that intensity/effort importantly affects employment success. The present conceptual paper extends job search theory by arguing for the importance of job search quality in explaining job search and employment success. We conceptualize job search quality as consisting of process quality and product/behavior quality, and propose that high-quality job search products/behaviors are more likely with a high-quality job search process. A four-phased cyclical self-regulatory model is presented, specifying the components of job search process quality. We build theory regarding the interrelations between quality components, the antecedents and outcomes of job search quality, and the moderators of these relations. This theory offers new and more detailed explanations for previous findings, directions for future research, and practical guidelines regarding (re)employment success and services. At any point, many individuals engage in job seeking, including unemployed people searching for reemployment, employed people looking for a new job, school-leavers or graduating students seeking their first job, and nonworking people (re)entering the labor force In addition to these explanations, one may question whether effort/intensity and number of job search sources/activities are the only important components of people's job search behavior. Although various scholars have coined the notion of job search quality (i.e., Organizational Psychology Review 3(1) quality and the conditions that impact those relations. The purpose of this conceptual paper is threefold. First, it aims to identify and delineate the components of job search quality, as well as conceptualize the relations among those components. In doing so, we synthesize relevant research into a conceptual framework of job search quality. Second, we build theory regarding the antecedents and outcomes of job search quality, and the moderators of these relations. Third, this paper aims to push job seeking research into new directions, by challenging the field to develop, study, and incorporate assessments of job search quality in addition to just job search quantity. We argue that a better understanding of job search quality is essential to advance both research and practice regarding reemployment success and services. We begin with a brief overview of extant job search theory, portraying that previous research has defined job search as a multistage process, albeit without specific attention to quality. We then draw upon the marketing and total quality management literature to argue for a distinction between job search product quality and job search process quality, and for conceptualizing job search process quality as a highly selfregulated job search. Extending previous job search theory and models, we use extant selfregulatory theory and recent advancements in the self-regulation literature to develop the components of our multistage job search quality process framework (see Extant job search theory Previous research describes job search as involving specific behaviors to identify labor market alternatives, acquire information about these alternatives, and actively pursue job opportunities Job search is often conceptualized as a multiphased process, consisting of several sequential stages. In his job search model, Soelberg (1967) described a deliberation phase of evaluation and occupational choice, followed by an implementation phase during which people allocate time, money, and effort to the job search. Building on this idea, Blau (1994) identified a preparatory and an active job search phase. Also broader theories on human behavior and decision-making have been used to suggest different stages in the job search process. For example, In addition to the conceptualization of job search as a multiphased process, recent theorizing has emphasized the self-regulatory Van Hooft et al. 5 Although some of these theories and models (implicitly) recognize the importance of job search quality (i.e., Conceptualizing job search quality The underpinnings of our multicomponent model of job search quality originate from previous work on product/service quality in the marketing literature. Below we describe this research as related to the conceptualization of quality, and argue for distinguishing between job search product quality and job search process quality. Quality as a product versus process The concept of quality in general has multiple and often very broad or muddled definitions. Reeves and Bednar (1994) identified several types of definitions of product/ service quality, and reviewed each definition's strengths and weaknesses. Based on this review, job search quality can be conceptualized as performing one's job search activities in such a way that those meet/exceed the expectations of the demanding parties of the labor market (e.g., selecting organizations, recruiters, assessors, hiring managers, counselors). A strength of this conceptualization is its external, organizationoriented focus, since what is high quality ultimately depends on the evaluations of the demanding parties of the labor market. However, although the demanding parties' expectations include some universals, these are to a large extent idiosyncratic (e.g., in each industry different ideas prevail about what constitutes a high-quality résumé or interview). A remaining question thus is how job seekers should perform their job search activities in order to increase the chances to meet those (idiosyncratic) expectations. Therefore, this external perspective to quality should be complemented by an internal or job seeker perspective, which holds that a high-quality job search refers to a job search that conforms to certain set and established standards and specifications. This definition implies a focus on the job search process. That is, in order to develop the specific quality standards and specifications, the job search should be disaggregated in its composing elements, and quality standards should be developed for each element. These quality standards can then offer prescriptive guidelines for job seekers and their counselors as to how to conduct a high-quality job search, which should ultimately lead to job search products that likely meet/exceed the demanding parties' expectations. Thus, we argue for a distinction between an external, organization-oriented perspective towards quality, and an internal, job seeker perspective towards quality. The external perspective refers to job search quality as job search behaviors or products (i.e., networking Van Hooft et al. 7 behavior, résumés, application letters, interview behavior) that meet/exceed the expectations of the demanding parties at the labor market. Operationalization and measurement of job search quality according to this perspective by definition involves (to some extent subjective) ratings of for example recruiters, hiring managers, or employment counselors on the extent to which the job seeker's products (e.g., résumé, application letter) or behaviors (e.g., networking, interview behavior) meet/ exceed their expectations. The internal perspective, in contrast, focuses on job search quality as a job search process that conforms to certain standards and specifications. The conceptualization of quality as composed of process quality and product quality can be further substantiated using the total quality management (TQM) literature. The core idea of TQM is hat high-quality products are impossible without implementing high-quality processes Similarly to TQM, we argue that highquality job search products and behaviors are more likely when the job search process is of high quality, and that a high-quality job search process is characterized by cycles of planning and analysis of the performed activities, enabling continuous improvement and learning. That is, job search is a difficult and complex process, involving a wide array of available methods and channels to use, and multiple behaviors that job seekers are often relatively unfamiliar with. Oftentimes, it is unclear exactly which methods and behaviors are effective and which are not. With conscious and careful attention to planning, analysis of performed job search activities, and adjustment and improvement of one's job search behavior based on such analysis and feedback from the environment, it is more likely that job seekers can learn and enhance their performance in order to improve fit with the labor market demands and meet the recruiting organizations' expectations. Therefore, it is important to further explicate what a high-quality process exactly entails. Given the multiphased nature of the job search process, we pose that job search process quality cannot be conceptualized as a single one-dimensional construct, but is multidimensional in nature, encapsulating all phases of the job search process. The next sections focus on elaborating job search process quality, using self-regulation theory. Job search quality as a self-regulated process Self-regulation refers to ''those processes, internal and/or transactional, that enable an individual to guide his/her goal-directed activities over time and across changing circumstances (contexts)'' (Karoly, 1993, p. 25). Similarly, Zimmerman (2000, p. 14) defines self-regulation as processes of ''self-generated thoughts, feelings, and actions that are planned and cyclically adapted to the attainment of personal goals.'' Self-regulation involves selfcontrol of attention, thoughts, affect, and behavior deliberately or automatically Self-regulation is especially needed in the attainment of distal goals that involve lengthy processes, composed of tasks low on intrinsic (activity-related) motivation and high on extrinsic (outcome-related) motivation Organizational Psychology Review 3(1) needed as those tasks are inherently pleasurable, interesting, and fun. However, for tasks that are difficult, boring, unpleasant, or otherwise aversive (i.e., low intrinsic motivation), but important to attain some valued goal (i.e., high extrinsic motivation), people need selfregulation (e.g., regulation of effort, reminding oneself of the valued outcome, maintenance actions directed at increasing interest) to ensure task persistence and performance. For most individuals, job search is characterized by this combination of low intrinsic and relatively high extrinsic motivation. That is, job search activities are rarely considered to be fun, enjoyable, and entertaining. Rather, the job search process is mostly experienced as difficult and full of negative emotions The cognitive forethought phases are succeeded by a behavioral phase of goal striving, directional maintenance, and volitional control during which self-regulation is needed to initiate and maintain the planned activities. Lastly, we propose that a high-quality job search process requires reflection and revision. That is, without thorough analysis and evaluation of one's job search behavior in the context of the established goals and based on the feedback from the environment, an upward cycle of learning and performance enhancement (which is an essential part of quality; cf. TQM, a process Summary and formal definitions of job search quality In summary, we argued that in conceptualizing job search quality one must distinguish between the quality of job search behaviors/products and the quality of the job search process. We further argued that higher quality behaviors/products are more likely the higher the process quality. Based on an organization-oriented, external perspective towards quality, we defined job search product quality as the extent to which a job seeker's job search behaviors/products meet/exceed the expectations of the demanding parties at the labor market. Furthermore, using a job seeker-oriented, internal perspective towards quality, job search process quality was conceptualized as the extent to which the process conforms to certain standards and specifications. Based on TQM, which focuses on quality cycles, we theorized that those process quality standards and specifications refer to conforming to the ordered sequence of four self-regulatory job search phases. Thus, synthesizing the job seeker-oriented, internal perspective on quality, the TQM principles, and self-regulation theory, we define job search process quality as the extent to which a job search is self-regulated, that is, the extent to which a job search is conducted by cycling through the four sequential self-regulatory phases of goal establishment, planning of the goal pursuit, goal striving, and reflection
