High-Resolution Transcriptome Maps Reveal Strain-Specific Regulatory Features of Multiple Campylobacter jejuni Isolates

Campylobacter jejuni is currently the leading cause of bacterial gastroenteritis in humans. Comparison of multiple Campylobacter strains revealed a high genetic and phenotypic diversity. However, little is known about differences in transcriptome organization, gene expression, and small RNA (sRNA) repertoires. Here we present the first comparative primary transcriptome analysis based on the differential RNA–seq (dRNA–seq) of four C. jejuni isolates. Our approach includes a novel, generic method for the automated annotation of transcriptional start sites (TSS), which allowed us to provide genome-wide promoter maps in the analyzed strains. These global TSS maps are refined through the integration of a SuperGenome approach that allows for a comparative TSS annotation by mapping RNA–seq data of multiple strains into a common coordinate system derived from a whole-genome alignment. Considering the steadily increasing amount of RNA–seq studies, our automated TSS annotation will not only facilitate transcriptome annotation for a wider range of pro- and eukaryotes but can also be adapted for the analysis among different growth or stress conditions. Our comparative dRNA–seq analysis revealed conservation of most TSS, but also single-nucleotide-polymorphisms (SNP) in promoter regions, which lead to strain-specific transcriptional output. Furthermore, we identified strain-specific sRNA repertoires that could contribute to differential gene regulation among strains. In addition, we identified a novel minimal CRISPR-system in Campylobacter of the type-II CRISPR subtype, which relies on the host factor RNase III and a trans-encoded sRNA for maturation of crRNAs. This minimal system of Campylobacter, which seems active in only some strains, employs a unique maturation pathway, since the crRNAs are transcribed from individual promoters in the upstream repeats and thereby minimize the requirements for the maturation machinery. Overall, our study provides new insights into strain-specific transcriptome organization and sRNAs, and reveals genes that could modulate phenotypic variation among strains despite high conservation at the DNA level

Guide-free Cas9 from pathogenic Campylobacter jejuni bacteria causes severe damage to DNA

CRISPR-Cas9 systems are enriched in human pathogenic bacteria and have been linked to cytotoxicity by an unknown mechanism. Here, we show that upon infection of human cells, Campylobacter jejuni secretes its Cas9 (CjeCas9) nuclease into their cytoplasm. Next, a native nuclear localization signal enables CjeCas9 nuclear entry, where it catalyzes metal-dependent nonspecific DNA cleavage leading to cell death. Compared to CjeCas9, native Cas9 of Streptococcus pyogenes (SpyCas9) is more suitable for guide-dependent editing. However, in human cells, native SpyCas9 may still cause some DNA damage, most likely because of its ssDNA cleavage activity. This side effect can be completely prevented by saturation of SpyCas9 with an appropriate guide RNA, which is only partially effective for CjeCas9. We conclude that CjeCas9 plays an active role in attacking human cells rather than in viral defense. Moreover, these unique catalytic features may therefore make CjeCas9 less suitable for genome editing applications

Vergleichende Transkriptomanalysen und posttranskriptionelle Regulierung in CampylobacterCampylobacter jejunijejuni

The transcriptome is defined as the set of all RNA molecules transcribed in a cell. These include protein-coding messenger RNAs (mRNAs) as well as non-coding RNAs, such as ribosomal RNAs (rRNAs), transfer RNAs (tRNAs), and small non-coding RNAs (sRNAs). sRNAs are known to play an important role in regulating gene expression and virulence in pathogens. In this thesis, the transcriptome of the food-borne pathogen Campylobacter jejuni was characterized at single nucleotide resolution by use of next-generation sequencing approaches. The first genome of a C. jejuni strain was published in the year 2000. However, its transcriptome remained uncharacterized at large. C. jejuni can survive in a variety of ecological niches and hosts. However, how strain-specific transcriptional changes contribute to such adaptation is not known. In this study, the global transcriptome maps of four closely related C. jejuni strains were defined using a differential RNA-seq (dRNA-seq) approach. This analysis also included a novel automated method to annotate the transcriptional start sites (TSS) at a genome-wide scale. Next, the transcriptomes of four strains were simultaneously mapped and compared by the use of a common coordinate system derived from whole-genome alignment, termed as SuperGenome. This approach helped to refine the promoter maps by comparison of TSS within strains. Most of the TSS were found to be conserved among all four strains, but some single-nucleotide-polymorphisms (SNPs) around promoter regions led to strain-specific transcriptional output. Most of these SNPs altered transcription only slightly, but some others led to a complete abrogation of transcription leading to differential molecular phenotypes. These in turn might help the strains to adapt to their specific host or microniche. The transcriptome also unveiled a plethora of sRNAs, some of which were conserved among the four strains while others were strain specific. Furthermore, a Cas9-dependent minimal type-II CRISPR-Cas system with only three Cas genes and multiple promoters to drive the transcription of the CRISPR locus was also characterized in C. jejuni using the dRNA-seq dataset. Apart from sRNAs, the role of global RNA binding proteins (RBPs) is also unclear in C. jejuni. Aided by the global transcriptome data, the role of RBPs in post-transcriptional regulation of C. jejuni was studied at a global scale. Two of the most widely studied RNA binding proteins in bacteria are Hfq and CsrA. The RNA interactome of the translational regulator CsrA was defined using another global deep-sequencing technique that combines co-immunoprecipitation (coIP) with RNA sequencing (RIP-seq). Using this interactome dataset, the direct targets of this widespread global post-transcriptional regulator were defined, revealing a significant enrichment for mRNAs encoding genes involved in flagella biosynthesis. Unlike Gammaproteobacteria, where sRNAs such as CsrB/C, antagonize CsrA activity, no sRNAs were enriched in the CsrA-coIP in C. jejuni, indicating absence of any sRNA antagonists and novel modes of CsrA activity regulation. Instead, the CsrA regulatory pathway revealed flaA mRNA, encoding the major flagellin, as a dual-function mRNA. flaA mRNA was the main target of CsrA but it also served to antagonize CsrA activity along with the protein antagonist FliW previously identified in the Gram-positive bacterium Bacillus subtilis. Furthermore, this regulatory mRNA was also shown in this thesis to localize to the poles of elongating C. jejuni cells in a translation-dependent manner. It was also shown that this localization is dependent on the CsrA-FliW regulon, which controls the translation of flaA mRNA. The role and mechanism of flaA mRNA localization or mRNA localization in general is not yet clear in bacteria when compared to their eukaryotic counterparts. Overall, this study provides first insights into riboregulation of the bacterial pathogen C. jejuni. The work presented in this thesis unveils several novel modes of riboregulation in C. jejuni, which could be applicable more generally. Moreover, this study also lays out several unsolved intriguing questions, which may pave the way for interesting studies to come.Das Transkriptom ist definiert als die Summe aller RNA-Moleküle, die in einer Zelle transkribiert werden. Hierzu gehören sowohl protein-kodierende Boten-RNAs (mRNAs für „messenger RNAs“), als auch nicht-kodierende RNAs, wie ribosomale RNAs (rRNAs), transfer RNAs (tRNAs) und kleine nicht-kodierende RNAs (sRNAs für „small RNAs“). Diese sRNAs spielen eine wichtige Rolle in der Regulierung von Genexpression und Virulenz von Pathogenen. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde das Transkriptom des Lebensmittelkeims Campylobacter jejuni mit Hilfe von Next-Generation-Sequencing-Methoden charakterisiert, welche eine Auflösung des Transkriptoms auf Einzelnukleotid-Ebene ermöglichen. Obwohl eine erste Genomsequenz für C. jejuni bereits im Jahr 2000 veröffentlicht wurde, war das Transkriptom bisher größtenteils uncharakterisiert. C. jejuni besitzt die Fähigkeit in vielen ökologischen Nischen und Wirten überleben zu können. Es ist jedoch bislang unbekannt, wie stammspezifische Veränderungen des Transkriptoms zu dieser Adaption beitragen. Mittels eines differenziellen RNA-Sequenzierungsansatzes wurden in dieser Arbeit globale Transkriptomkarten von vier nahverwandten C. jejuni Stämmen erstellt. Diese Analyse beinhaltet auch eine neue automatisierte Methode zur genomweiten Identifizierung von Transkriptionsstartstellen (TSS). Anschließend wurde aus den Genomsequenzen der vier Campylobacter Stämme ein SuperGenom erstellt. Dieses wiederum diente als Referenz, anhand dessen die Transkriptome kartiert und miteinander verglichen werden konnten. Dieser Ansatz ermöglichte eine verfeinerte Kartierung der Promotoren mittels des Vergleichs verschiedener Stämme. Die meisten TSS waren innerhalb der vier Stämme konserviert. Allerdings kam es durch SNPs („single-nucleotide polymorphisms“) in den Promoterregionen zu stammspezifischem Transkriptoutput. Die meisten dieser SNPs hatten nur geringe Veränderungen der Transkription zur Folge. Manche jedoch führten zu einem kompletten Verlust der Transkription und damit zu verschiedenen molekularen Phänotypen. Diese wiederum könnten es den verschiedenen Stämmen ermöglichen, sich an ihre spezifische Wirts- oder Mikronische anzupassen. Das Transkriptom wies auch eine Fülle von sRNAs auf, von denen manche in allen vier Stämmen konserviert, andere jedoch stammspezifisch waren. Zudem wurde mittels des C. jejuni-dRNA-seq-Datensatzes ein minimales Cas9-abhängiges CRISPR-Cas-System des Typs II entdeckt. Dieses beinhaltet lediglich drei Cas-Gene, jedoch mehrere Promotoren, die die Expression des CRISPR-Lokus antreiben. Neben der Funktion von sRNAs ist auch die Rolle globaler RNA-Bindeproteine (RBPs) in C. jejuni weitestgehend unklar. Mithilfe der Transkriptomdaten wurde die Rolle von RBPs in der posttranskriptionellen Regulierung in C. jejuni untersucht. Zwei der am besten untersuchten RNA-Bindeproteine in Bakterien sind Hfq und CsrA. Das RNA-Interaktom des Translationsregulators CsrA wurde mittels eines weiteren globalen Deep-Squencing-Ansatzes definiert. Bei dieser Methode werden Coimmunopräzipitation (coIP) und RNA-Sequenzierung zum so genannten RIP-seq kombiniert. Mithilfe dieses Interaktionsdatensatzes wurden die Zielgene dieses weitverbreiteten, globalen posttranskriptionellen Regulators definiert. Hierbei wurde eine signifikante Anreicherung von mRNAs, die in die Biosynthese von Flagellen involviert sind, erkennbar. Anders als in Gammaproteobakterien, in denen sRNAs wie CsrB und CsrC die CsrA-Aktivität antagonisieren, wurden in C. jejuni keine sRNAs in der CsrA-CoIP angereichert. Dies deutet auf das Fehlen jeglicher sRNA-Antagonisten, und damit auf eine neue Art der CsrA-Aktivitätskontrolle hin. Anstelle der sRNAs wurde die flaA mRNA, welche für das Hauptflagellin kodiert, als mRNA mit dualer Funktion identifiziert. Sie ist zum einen das Hauptzielgen von CsrA, fungiert aber gleichzeitig, zusammen mit dem Protein FliW, als Antagonist von CsrA. FliW wurde bereits zuvor in dem Grampositiven Bakterium Bacillus subtilis identifiziert. In dieser Arbeit konnte zudem gezeigt werden, dass die regulatorische flaA mRNA translationsabhängig an den Polen der wachsenden C. jejuni-Zellen lokalisiert ist. Außerdem war zu erkennen, dass diese Lokalisierung abhängig von dem CsrA-FliW-Regulon stattfindet, welches die Translation der flaA-mRNA kontrolliert. Im Gegensatz zu Eukaryoten ist die Rolle, die die Lokalisation der flaA-mRNA, oder bakterieller mRNA im Allgemeinen, spielt, sowie der Mechanismus, der zu dieser Lokalisierung führt, bisher noch unklar. Zusammenfassend ermöglicht diese Arbeit einen ersten Einblick in die Riboregulierung des bakteriellen Pathogens C. jejuni. Es konnten einige neue Mechanismen dieser Art der Regulierung aufgedeckt werden, welche auch allgemeine Gültigkeit finden könnten. Zudem werden in dieser Arbeit neue, faszinierende Fragen aufgeworfen, die den Weg für weitere interessante Studien bereiten

CRISPR RNA-Dependent Binding and Cleavage of Endogenous RNAs by the Campylobacter jejuni Cas9.

Cas9 nucleases naturally utilize CRISPR RNAs (crRNAs) to silence foreign double-stranded DNA. While recent work has shown that some Cas9 nucleases can also target RNA, RNA recognition has required nuclease modifications or accessory factors. Here, we show that the Campylobacter jejuni Cas9 (CjCas9) can bind and cleave complementary endogenous mRNAs in a crRNA-dependent manner. Approximately 100 transcripts co-immunoprecipitated with CjCas9 and generally can be subdivided through their base-pairing potential to the four crRNAs. A subset of these RNAs was cleaved around or within the predicted binding site. Mutational analyses revealed that RNA binding was crRNA and tracrRNA dependent and that target RNA cleavage required the CjCas9 HNH domain. We further observed that RNA cleavage was PAM independent, improved with greater complementarity between the crRNA and the RNA target, and was programmable in vitro. These findings suggest that C. jejuni Cas9 is a promiscuous nuclease that can coordinately target both DNA and RNA

Microbial Forensics: Predicting Phenotypic Characteristics and Environmental Conditions from Large-Scale Gene Expression Profiles

<div><p>A tantalizing question in cellular physiology is whether the cellular state and environmental conditions can be inferred by the expression signature of an organism. To investigate this relationship, we created an extensive normalized gene expression compendium for the bacterium <i>Escherichia coli</i> that was further enriched with meta-information through an iterative learning procedure. We then constructed an ensemble method to predict environmental and cellular state, including strain, growth phase, medium, oxygen level, antibiotic and carbon source presence. Results show that gene expression is an excellent predictor of environmental structure, with multi-class ensemble models achieving balanced accuracy between 70.0% (±3.5%) to 98.3% (±2.3%) for the various characteristics. Interestingly, this performance can be significantly boosted when environmental and strain characteristics are simultaneously considered, as a composite classifier that captures the inter-dependencies of three characteristics (medium, phase and strain) achieved 10.6% (±1.0%) higher performance than any individual models. Contrary to expectations, only 59% of the top informative genes were also identified as differentially expressed under the respective conditions. Functional analysis of the respective genetic signatures implicates a wide spectrum of Gene Ontology terms and KEGG pathways with condition-specific information content, including iron transport, transferases, and enterobactin synthesis. Further experimental phenotypic-to-genotypic mapping that we conducted for knock-out mutants argues for the information content of top-ranked genes. This work demonstrates the degree at which genome-scale transcriptional information can be predictive of latent, heterogeneous and seemingly disparate phenotypic and environmental characteristics, with far-reaching applications.</p></div