Avifaunal Diversity and Distribution in Protected and Non-Protected Areas at Central Low Country Dry Zone, Sri Lanka

Sri Lanka is a tropical island with major development in the recent past. Rapidly developing the tourism industry and the recently started Moragahakanda Hydro-electricity and multipurpose project affects the fauna and flora in the Habarana area, where typical dry zone semi-evergreen vegetation is present. The objective of this study was to evaluate the impacts on avifauna due to such changes in the natural environment. Three sites by the side of Habarana (Kaudulla National Park (KNP), Minneriya National Park (MNP) and Non-Protected Forest Patch (NPFP)) were selected as the study area. Avifauna was recorded usingcircular plots (number of plots for each site was decided after drawing the species discovery curve for each site) representing different habitat types at each site in the morning (6.00 am to 10.00 am) and evening (2.00 pm to 6.00 pm) during a period of 6 months from March 2018 to August 2018. According to the results, 73 species, was observed at MNP belonging to 35 families and 15 orders and at KNP had 67 species, belonging to 32 families and 12 orders were observed. At the NPFP 43 species were observed belonging to 18 families and 9 orders. At KNP and MNP the most abundant species were aquatic birds (Black-headed Ibis, Black-winged Stilt, Painted Stork and Grey Heron) due to the presence of large reservoirs. Most abundant species at the NPFP were garden birds (Rose-ringed Parakeet, Red-vented Bulbul, White-browed Bulbul, and Yellow-billed Babbler) indicating the human invasion to the area. In total, four endemics (Sri Lanka Jungle fowl, Sri Lanka Swallow, Sri Lanka Grey Hornbill, and Sri Lanka Green Pigeon) were observed in the study area. Simpsons and Shannon diversity indexes were highest at KNP (0.928 and 3.03) and lowest at NPFP (0.935 and 3.17), while at MNP, the above indexes were 0.9571 and 3.54, respectively. Species evenness at the three sites were 0.481, 0.472 and 0.356 at KNP, MNP, and NPFP, respectively. Hence, species diversity and species evenness at all three sites depict high diversity in the study area indicating the importance of all habitats for species conservation. Therefore, not only less disturbed National Parks but also, non-protected disturbed forest patches are also important as habitats for avifauna. This is an important assumption to prove the vital necessity of protecting diverse habitats and integration of overall land-use management to conserve avifauna as well as other native species.Keywords: Avifauna, Distribution, Diversity, Kaudulla, Minneriy

Sri Lanka Malaria Maps

BACKGROUND: Despite a relatively good national case reporting system in Sri Lanka, detailed maps of malaria distribution have not been publicly available. METHODS: In this study, monthly records over the period 1995 – 2000 of microscopically confirmed malaria parasite positive blood film readings, at sub-district spatial resolution, were used to produce maps of malaria distribution across the island. Also, annual malaria trends at district resolution were displayed for the period 1995 – 2002. RESULTS: The maps show that Plasmodium vivax malaria incidence has a marked variation in distribution over the island. The incidence of Plasmodium falciparum malaria follows a similar spatial pattern but is generally much lower than that of P. vivax. In the north, malaria shows one seasonal peak in the beginning of the year, whereas towards the south a second peak around June is more pronounced. CONCLUSION: This paper provides the first publicly available maps of both P. vivax and P. falciparum malaria incidence distribution on the island of Sri Lanka at sub-district resolution, which may be useful to health professionals, travellers and travel medicine professionals in their assessment of malaria risk in Sri Lanka. As incidence of malaria changes over time, regular updates of these maps are necessary

Valuation of Marine Ecosystem Conservation: A Case Study on Hikkaduwa National Park, Sri Lanka

Hikkaduwa National Park is one of the four marine national parks in Sri Lanka and a main recreational attraction. Hikkaduwa coral reef is a typical shallow fringing reef with an average depth of around 5 metres. However, the reef has suffered high degradation due to both natural and manmade causes. Despite being designated as a protected area, the coral reef has been subjected to constant exploitation including removal of breeding ornamental fish for the commercial market. This stress the need for sustainable management of the resource related to tourism activities. This research aims at providing an economic valuation of coral reef management policy options, using stated preference-choice experimental analysis. Random sampling method was used and 200 visitors were interviewed using pretested questionnaire with different choice sets. Tourists were interviewed onsite from June to July 2019 for data collection. A conditional logit model was employed to analyse the data using STATA14. According to the results, highest number (34%) of respondents had A/L qualifications. Many visitors (50%) were from Gampaha and Colombo Districts. The estimated model is statistically significant with 0.46 pseudo R-sq value. The cost variable is statistically significant but negatively influenced confirming theoretical expectations. The main attributes selected for the study were condition of the coral reef, cleanliness of the beach, condition of the boats and availability of facilities. The condition of the coral reef was considered as an important attribute, but healthy and improved coral reef is insignificant in the model. In addition, bleached and broken coral was a less important variable compared to status quo option. Regarding the attribute of cleanliness of the beach, clean beach and no proper management of beach were less important compared to somewhat clean beach. Condition of the boats were the other attribute presented and new boats with safe jackets were considered as important compared to no safe jackets and old boats and boats with engines that are not properly functioning and with some safe jackets. The significant variables were used to estimate the marginal willingness to pay (WTP) values. According to the results Marginal Willingness To Accept (MWTA) if the corals are bleached and broken is Rs. 711, if the beach is clean Rs. 684 and if not properly managed Rs.66.38. The usefulness of the derived results in guiding the park management are discussed.Keywords: Coral reef, Choice experiment analysis, Hikkaduwa National Park, Sustainable tourism, Willingness to pa

Assessing Visitor Preferences and Willingness to pay for Marine National Park Hikkaduwa: application of choice experiment method

Eco-tourism all over the world is threatened by the fact that the coral reefs and associated ecosystems are in a process of disappearing at an accelerated rate due to several natural and anthropogenic causes. In this context, the Marine National Park Hikkaduwa (MNPH), one of the four marine national parks in Sri Lanka, that features a fringing coral reef with a high degree of biodiversity, reports a decreasing trend in visitation mainly due to a condition of coral bleaching caused by an El Nino effect. Unfortunately, the regeneration of the corals is found to be slowed by continuous anthropogenic activities. Against this background, the research focuses on investigating how visitor behaviour changes with the degraded situation and what avenues are available to attract more visitors to ensure benefit flows. In this concern, visitor preferences regarding the quality of the habitats and other facilities and their significance were analysed under a conditional logistic regression model. Further, a choice experiment was carried out with a randomly selected group of 200 visitors to diagnose their response to the present condition of the coral reef, the beach, and the facilities provided. Under a conditional logistic model, it was discovered that the condition of the coral reef is an important attribute that answers the question of why visitors are not willing to pay if the corals are bleached and broken. It was also discovered that the visitors are willing to pay LKR 322.52 if they are provided with new boats and new safety jackets. The results indicate that benefit flows could be enhanced with the restoration of coral ecosystems and the improvement of the physical infrastructure. Overall, the research attempts to establish that the standard maintenance of the coral reef along with high-quality visitor welfare facilities to match visitor preferences will positively impact all types of payment compliance issues with regard to the visitors

Indoor residual spraying of insecticide and malaria morbidity in a high transmission intensity area of Uganda.

BackgroundRecently the use of indoor residual spraying of insecticide (IRS) has greatly increased in Africa; however, limited data exist on the quantitative impacts of IRS on health outcomes in highly malaria endemic areas.Methodology/principal findingsRoutine data were collected on more than 90,000 patient visits at a single health facility over a 56 month period covering five rounds of IRS using three different insecticides. Temporal associations between the timing of IRS and the probability of a patient referred for microscopy having laboratory confirmed malaria were estimated controlling for seasonality and age. Considering patients less than five years of age there was a modest decrease in the odds of malaria following the 1(st) round of IRS using DDT (OR = 0.76, p<0.001) and the 2(nd) round using alpha-cypermethrin (OR = 0.83, p = 0.002). Following rounds 3-5 using bendiocarb there was a much greater decrease in the odds of malaria (ORs 0.34, 0.16, 0.17 respectively, p<0.001 for all comparisons). Overall, the impact of IRS was less pronounced among patients 5 years or older.Conclusions/significanceIRS was associated with a reduction in malaria morbidity in an area of high transmission intensity in Uganda and the benefits appeared to be greatest after switching to a carbamate class of insecticide

Evaluation of inter-modular connection behaviour under lateral loads: An experimental and numerical study

This study focuses on a comprehensive investigation of the inter-modular connection shear behaviour under lateral load using theoretical, experimental, and numerical analyses. Initially, three design configurations of proposed inter-modular connection with varying bolt sizes and hole tolerances were tested in shear, and their load-deformation behaviours were studied. Finite element models were then developed in ANSYS and validated against the test results obtained from the experiments. The connections were identified as slip critical connections for serviceability design, as they tend to fail in slippage even at a very small lateral load. Further, evaluation of combined tension and shear effects on the connections confirmed that the failures were due to the combined effect not purely by shear, and therefore connections of this type should consider this as the most critical design check. Based on findings, this paper then describes a methodology for estimating the overall stiffness of inter-modular connections, such that those stiffness values can be employed in modelling the inter-modular connections as a link or spring type elements in the global model of modular buildings. This paper also presents recommendations and suggestions for future enhancement of inter-modular connection designs highlighting the shear slip behaviour and onsite installation constraints

Knowledge and perception towards net care and repair practice in Ethiopia.

BACKGROUND: Long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLINs) are a key malaria control intervention. Although LLINs are presumed to be effective for 3 years under field or programmatic conditions, net care and repair approaches by users influence the physical and chemical durability. Understanding how knowledge, perception and practices influence net care and repair practices could guide the development of targeted behavioural change communication interventions related to net care and repair in Ethiopia and elsewhere. METHODS: This population-based, household survey was conducted in four regions of Ethiopia [Amhara, Oromia, Tigray, Southern Nations Nationalities Peoples Region (SNNPR)] in June 2015. A total of 1839 households were selected using multi-stage sampling procedures. The household respondents were the heads of households. A questionnaire was administered and the data were captured electronically. STATA software version 12 was used to analyse the data. Survey commands were used to account for the multi-stage sampling approach. Household descriptive statistics related to characteristics and levels of knowledge and perception on net care and repair are presented. Ordinal logistic regression was used to identify factors associated with net care and repair perceptions. RESULTS: Less than a quarter of the respondents (22.3%: 95% CI 20.4-24.3%) reported adequate knowledge of net care and repair; 24.6% (95% CI 22.7-26.5%) of the respondents reported receiving information on net care and repair in the previous 6 months. Thirty-five per cent of the respondents (35.1%: 95% CI 32.9-37.4%) reported positive perceptions towards net care and repair. Respondents with adequate knowledge on net care and repair (AOR 1.58: 95% CI 1.2-2.02), and those who discussed net care and repair with their family (AOR 1.47: 95% CI 1.14-1.89) had higher odds of having positive perceptions towards net care and repair. CONCLUSIONS: The low level of reported knowledge on net care and repair, as well as the low level of reported positive perception towards net repair need to be addressed. Targeted behavioural change communication campaigns could be used to target specific groups; increased net care and repair would lead to longer lasting nets

Insecticide resistance in Anopheles arabiensis from Ethiopia (2012-2016): a nationwide study for insecticide resistance monitoring.

BACKGROUND: Indoor residual spraying (IRS) and long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLINs) remain the cornerstones of malaria vector control. However, the development of insecticide resistance and its implications for operational failure of preventative strategies are of concern. The aim of this study was to characterize insecticide resistance among Anopheles arabiensis populations in Ethiopia and describe temporal and spatial patterns of resistance between 2012 and 2016. METHODS: Between 2012 and 2016, resistance status of An. arabiensis was assessed annually during the long rainy seasons in study sites from seven of the nine regions in Ethiopia. Insecticide resistance levels were measured with WHO susceptibility tests and CDC bottle bioassays using insecticides from four chemical classes (organochlorines, pyrethroids, organophosphates and carbamates), with minor variations in insecticides tested and assays conducted between years. In selected sites, CDC synergist assays were performed by pre-exposing mosquitoes to piperonyl butoxide (PBO). In 2015 and 2016, mosquitoes from DDT and deltamethrin bioassays were randomly selected, identified to species-level and screened for knockdown resistance (kdr) by PCR. RESULTS: Intense resistance to DDT and pyrethroids was pervasive across Ethiopia, consistent with historic use of DDT for IRS and concomitant increases in insecticide-treated net coverage over the last 15 years. Longitudinal resistance trends to malathion, bendiocarb, propoxur and pirimiphos-methyl corresponded to shifts in the national insecticide policy. By 2016, resistance to the latter two insecticides had emerged, with the potential to jeopardize future long-term effectiveness of vector control activities in these areas. Between 2015 and 2016, the West African (L1014F) kdr allele was detected in 74.1% (n = 686/926) of specimens, with frequencies ranging from 31 to 100% and 33 to 100% in survivors from DDT and deltamethrin bioassays, respectively. Restoration of mosquito susceptibility, following pre-exposure to PBO, along with a lack of association between kdr allele frequency and An. arabiensis mortality rate, both indicate metabolic and target-site mutation mechanisms are contributing to insecticide resistance. CONCLUSIONS: Data generated by this study will strengthen the National Malaria Control Programme's insecticide resistance management strategy to safeguard continued efficacy of IRS and other malaria control methods in Ethiopia

Models for short term malaria prediction in Sri Lanka

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>Malaria in Sri Lanka is unstable and fluctuates in intensity both spatially and temporally. Although the case counts are dwindling at present, given the past history of resurgence of outbreaks despite effective control measures, the control programmes have to stay prepared. The availability of long time series of monitored/diagnosed malaria cases allows for the study of forecasting models, with an aim to developing a forecasting system which could assist in the efficient allocation of resources for malaria control.</p> <p>Methods</p> <p>Exponentially weighted moving average models, autoregressive integrated moving average (ARIMA) models with seasonal components, and seasonal multiplicative autoregressive integrated moving average (SARIMA) models were compared on monthly time series of district malaria cases for their ability to predict the number of malaria cases one to four months ahead. The addition of covariates such as the number of malaria cases in neighbouring districts or rainfall were assessed for their ability to improve prediction of selected (seasonal) ARIMA models.</p> <p>Results</p> <p>The best model for forecasting and the forecasting error varied strongly among the districts. The addition of rainfall as a covariate improved prediction of selected (seasonal) ARIMA models modestly in some districts but worsened prediction in other districts. Improvement by adding rainfall was more frequent at larger forecasting horizons.</p> <p>Conclusion</p> <p>Heterogeneity of patterns of malaria in Sri Lanka requires regionally specific prediction models. Prediction error was large at a minimum of 22% (for one of the districts) for one month ahead predictions. The modest improvement made in short term prediction by adding rainfall as a covariate to these prediction models may not be sufficient to merit investing in a forecasting system for which rainfall data are routinely processed.</p

Temporal correlation between malaria and rainfall in Sri Lanka

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>Rainfall data have potential use for malaria prediction. However, the relationship between rainfall and the number of malaria cases is indirect and complex.</p> <p>Methods</p> <p>The statistical relationships between monthly malaria case count data series and monthly mean rainfall series (extracted from interpolated station data) over the period 1972 – 2005 in districts in Sri Lanka was explored in four analyses: cross-correlation; cross-correlation with pre-whitening; inter-annual; and seasonal inter-annual regression.</p> <p>Results</p> <p>For most districts, strong positive correlations were found for malaria time series lagging zero to three months behind rainfall, and negative correlations were found for malaria time series lagging four to nine months behind rainfall. However, analysis with pre-whitening showed that most of these correlations were spurious. Only for a few districts, weak positive (at lags zero and one) or weak negative (at lags two to six) correlations were found in pre-whitened series. Inter-annual analysis showed strong negative correlations between malaria and rainfall for a group of districts in the centre-west of the country. Seasonal inter-annual analysis showed that the effect of rainfall on malaria varied according to the season and geography.</p> <p>Conclusion</p> <p>Seasonally varying effects of rainfall on malaria case counts may explain weak overall cross-correlations found in pre-whitened series, and should be taken into account in malaria predictive models making use of rainfall as a covariate.</p